Part 14 Stress, Coping, and Health
Answers to Before You Go On Questions
Module 80
1. What is the difference between an acute stressor and a chronic stressor? An acute stressor is a short-term stressful situation or circumstance that has a definite endpoint—for example, a near miss in heavy traffic. A chronic stressor is long term and often lacks a definite endpoint—for example, dealing over time with a high-pressure job.
2. What are the four types of stress experiences? (1) Frustration—an emotion people experience when thwarted in pursuit of a goal; (2) pressure—an expectation or demand that someone act in a certain way; (3) conflict—discomfort brought about by two or more goals or impulses that are perceived to be incompatible; (4) danger.
3. Define the three basic types of conflict.(1) Approach–approach conflict—conflict that occurs when a person must choose between two equally desirable options; for example, choosing between two good movies; (2) avoidance–avoidance conflict—conflict that occurs when a person must choose between two equally undesirable options; for example, studying for a physics or a chemistry final exam; (3) approach–avoidance conflict—conflict that occurs when any available choice has both desirable and undesirable qualities; for example, going to a potentially exciting sporting event with a relative you do not get along with very well.
4. What are daily hassles and what is their impact on health?Daily hassles (also called micro-stressors) are everyday annoyances that contribute to higher stress levels. These everyday stresses leave us feeling upset and at the end of our rope. These stressors can range from minor irritations, such as lost keys or a talkative co-worker, to major problems, such as intense work pressure or conflict with a romantic partner. Some daily hassles seem to be universally upsetting, including time pressures, cash-flow problems, feelings of being cheated after purchasing something, conflicts with romantic partners, mistreatment by friends, and poor evaluations at work. Over time, daily hassles can add up, and it turns out that the impact of daily hassles on health is often greater than that of a major life event (Stuart & Garrison, 2002). This is because ongoing stress may impair our immune system responses. One study found that people who face daily commutes in heavy traffic are particularly likely to miss work because of colds and flu—illnesses that can result from stress-induced changes in the immune system.
5. What is the Social Readjustment Rating Scale?The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) is a systematic way to measure how much stress people experience. It is a list compiled of 43 events that were likely to change a person’s life and, therefore, cause stress. These events range from the death of a spouse to minor violations of the law to taking a vacation. Based on the ratings by participants, the researchers assigned a point value to each event, ranging from 1 to 100 points, or life-change units (LCUs). The point value for each event corresponded to the amount of upset and adjustment the event typically produced. For example, the death of a spouse received a score of 100 LCUs on the scale, whereas a change in responsibilities at work was 29 LCUs, and taking a vacation came in at 13 LCUs.
Module 81
1. How do the sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal pathways influence our experience of stress?The brain sends messages to the endocrine glands and bodily organs through the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) pathway and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. When we confront a dangerous situation, within seconds the brain sends messages to the sympathetic nervous system, and these nerves directly stimulate organs of the body (the heart, for example). The adrenal glands are also stimulated, releasing the chemicals epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream, where they are carried to various organs and muscles, further arousing the organism and enabling it to fight or flee. Normally, the biological changes associated with the fight-or-flight response subside around 15 minutes after the threatening situation eases. Another component involved is cortisol, a stress hormone that travels to a range of body organs, helping to elevate blood sugar, supply energy to the organism under stress, and protect the body from inflammation, etc.
2. What happens in each stage of the general adaptation syndrome?The general adaptation syndrome (GAS) is a three-stage response to stress identified by Hans Selye. The stages are (1) alarm—when an organism is first exposed to a threat, it reacts with alarm and becomes aroused physically as it prepares to face the challenge by fighting or fleeing; this is the fight-or-flight response; (2) resistance—if the threat continues, the organism’s body undergoes further changes in an attempt to stabilize itself; the organism’s level of arousal remains elevated, though slightly lower than during the initial alarm phase, as it adjusts to the stressor; new stressors at this point are extremely harmful and can lead to diseases of adaptation; (3) exhaustion—if the organism is exposed to the stressor for still longer periods of time, its resistance gradually gives way to the third stage, exhaustion; in this stage, the body is depleted of energy and has little ability to resist; if the threat continues, the organism can suffer organ damage or death.
3. What is the difference between primary appraisal and secondary appraisal?Primary appraisal is the appraisal of a stressor to determine how severe it is and what sorts of consequences it involves; the first stage in Richard Lazarus’s description of how people experience stress. On the other hand, secondary appraisal is the appraisal of one’s personal resources and ability to cope with a stressor; the second stage in Richard Lazarus’s description of how people experience stress.
4. How does autonomic reactivity affect how different people experience stress?When a person confronts a stressor, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) stimulates organs throughout the body, triggering feelings of physical arousal. As you might expect, people differ in how intensely the ANS responds to stressors. In some, the ANS tends to be highly reactive across various situations and springs into action even in response to mild stressors. In others, the ANS is less reactive and so less likely to respond even to fairly significant stressors. Such basic differences in autonomic reactivity may cause some people to experience stress reactions more often or more intensely than other people in the face of identical environmental threats (Cohen & Hamrick, 2003; 2003; Spielberger, 1985, 1972, 1966).
5. What are the characteristics of the hardy personality type?The hardy personality type, sometimes called the stress-resistant personality, welcomes challenges and is willing to commit to and take control in their daily lives. Generally, people with hardy personalities greet stressors as opportunities for growth rather than as crises and perceive stressors as less severe than non-hardy individuals. Not surprisingly, hardy people also seem to experience fewer and less intense feelings of stress (Beasley et al., 2003).
Module 82
1. How can lashing out negatively affect our management of stressors?Angry outbursts, although sometimes understandable, are not typically a constructive way of dealing with stress. Excessive or continuous expressions of anger usually cause further outbursts (Tavris, 2003, 1989). In the long term, lashing out can harm or destroy a person’s social support network, and as mentioned in the chapter, social support is a primary defence against stress. By driving away those who could help with stress-related problems, a person will likely make those problems worse.
2. What is a repressive coping style?A repressive coping style is one where a person consistently denies negative feelings and discomfort and tries to push such emotions out of awareness. The problem with this style is that while we spend our time defending and avoiding, the problem typically continues.
3. Identify and describe two forms of constructive coping.Psychologists Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman (1984) use the terms problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping to distinguish two kinds of constructive strategies. In problem-focused coping we use strategies focused on dealing directly with the stressor, such as by changing the stressor in some way. In emotion-focused coping, we use strategies focused on changing or dealing with our feelings about the stressor. Which of these strategies we are likely to use depends in part on the nature of the problem. For instance, when dealing with traffic, we could try to leave earlier to avoid the traffic, or perhaps more practically, we could learn how to react calmly and philosophically to rush-hour tie-ups.
Answers to Your Brain and Behaviour Questions
1. What is the role of the hypothalamus in responding to a stressor?When we experience a stressor, the hypothalamus sends signals to the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland releases a hormone that tells the adrenal glands to release cortisol, the main stress hormone.
2. What does it mean to say that the effects of stress on the brain are helpful in the short term but can be harmful in the long term?In the short term, the body’s stress response helps us to focus attention and increase our energy resources. But if the stress is chronic, pyramidal neurons in the prefrontal cortex can shrink, impairing performance on particular cognitive tasks.
3. How does the brain response differ when a stressor is rewarding versus not rewarding?Rewarding stressors seem not to have the same detrimental effect on neurons that non-rewarding stressors have. Rewarding stressors may even improve brain function, in terms of stimulating the creation of new neurons in the hippocampus.
4. Where in the brain are the stress hormone receptors that help to restore the brain to its normal state once the stressor has passed?Stress hormone receptors in the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and hypothalamus help return the brain to its normal state after a stressor has passed.
Module 83
1. How has stress been linked with coronary heart disease?Coronary heart disease involves a blocking of the coronary arteries—the blood vessels that surround the heart and are responsible for carrying oxygen to the heart muscle. Research has shown that most cases of coronary heart disease are related to an interaction of psychological factors, like job stress, and physiological factors, such as high cholesterol, obesity, hypertension, smoking, and lack of exercise. Research has identified the importance of negative emotions with increased vulnerability to coronary problems. Hostility, which includes not just feelings of anger but also enduring cognitive patterns of mistrust and cynicism, seems to be especially important (Smith & Gallo, 2001).
2. What is the connection between life changes and illness? Using the SRRS (Social Readjustment Rating Scale), researchers identified that the higher a person’s score on the scale, as measured in life-change units (LCUs), the more change the person has been going through and, correspondingly, the more stress he or she has been experiencing. Researchers found that the LCU scores of sick people during the year before they became ill were considerably higher than those of healthy people; in fact, if a person’s life changes totalled more than 300 LCUs over the course of a year, that person was likely to develop a serious health problem.
3. How does stress affect the immune system?Research clearly shows that stress can result in various medical disorders. Researchers believe that severe stress can negatively affect the activity of lymphocytes, slowing them down and thus reducing a person’s ability to fight off viral and bacterial infections (Ader et al., 2001). Other studies have shown poor immune system functioning in people who are exposed to long-term stressors, such as people who must provide care for relatives with Alzheimer’s disease (Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2002, 1996, 1991;Lovell, Moss, & Wetharall, 2011).
4. What factors influence whether stress will have this effect?A number of biochemical changes must occur for stress to have such an impact on our health. Certain behavioural changes, personality styles, and social circumstances may also play a role. Norepinephrine release increases immune functioning at low levels of stress, but slows down immune functioning in the face of higher and continuing stress. Similarly, the stress hormone cortisol lowers immune system functioning during periods of extended stress. Another action of cortisol is to stimulate an increase in the production of cytokines—proteins that bind to receptors throughout the body and play a key role in the immune system. At low levels of stress, the cytokines help fight infections, but, as stress continues, the continuing production and spread of cytokines leads to inflammation throughout the body (an immune response characterized by swelling, heat, redness, and pain). Chronic inflammation of this kind may contribute to heart disease, stroke, and other illnesses.
5. What are some beneficial effects of stress?Pleasant stressors, in contrast to negative stressors, cause eustress—the optimal level of stress needed to promote physical and psychological health. A key benefit of stress is that it helps promote positive development; adverse events and the stress that they produce can force you to confront challenges, adapt to your environment, and build up strength and resilience. Exposing yourself to a small level of stress in a controlled situation can improve your performance in more stressful situations, a process called inoculation.
Module 84
1. What are some symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder?In posttraumatic stress disorder, people who have confronted an extraordinary stressful event may have lingering reactions of intense fear and helplessness; they may be battered by memories, dreams, or nightmares connected to the traumatic event; and they may repeatedly try to avoid activities, thoughts, feelings, or conversations that remind them of the event. Many also feel detached from other people, some lose interest in activities that once brought enjoyment, and some feel dazed. A number of individuals with the disorder are easily startled, develop sleep problems, and have trouble concentrating. They may also feel extreme guilt because they survived the traumatic event while others did not (Keane et al., 2009).
2. What factors put a person at heightened risk for developing posttraumatic stress disorder following a traumatic event? All things being equal, some people seem particularly prone to PTSD in the aftermath of traumatic events. Researchers have looked at a number of factors that could lead to PTSD: (1) Biological factors—in the face of extraordinarily threatening stressors, some people develop particularly strong biochemical reactions that continue well beyond a short-term fight-or-flight period. It appears such individuals are more likely than others to experience posttraumatic stress disorder. (2) Personality—certain personality styles or coping styles are particularly likely to react to threats with stress and to develop medical problems. Similarly, such styles increase the likelihood of developing PTSD. (3) Childhood experiences—studies have also suggested that certain childhood experiences increase the risk of later PTSD. Childhoods characterized by poverty appear more likely to develop this disorder when later confronting horrific events, for example. (4) Social support—the social environment may influence whether victims of traumatic events develop PTSD. Inadequate social support can intensify stress reactions and slow down immune functioning; thus, it is not surprising that people with weak social support systems are also more likely to develop PTSD after a traumatic event.
Comer/Psychology Around Us, Second Canadian Edition