CH 37 Part 1 Notes the Eisenhower Era1952-1960

CH 37 Part 1 Notes-- The Eisenhower Era1952-1960

“Every warship launched, every rocket fired signifies… a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothed.” IKE – April 16, 1953

QUESTIONS:

1.What was the driving force behind the affluence and the consumer culture of the 1950s?

2.How did the Brown decision and the confrontations in Little Rock and Greensboro set the stage for the civil rights movement of the 1950s?

3.What were the differences between Eisenhower’s foreign policy and those of his predecessors in the battle of the Cold War?

4.What were the major issues facing Eisenhower in Europe and Asia?

5.How did literature reflect confusion in the attitudes and feelings Americans had about how to deal with postwar modern society during the 1950s?

6.What was the basis of “Beat” criticism of American society?

7. What role did Eisenhower have within the Vietnam conflict?

THEMES:

While Dwight Eisenhower and the majority of Americans held to a cautious, family-oriented perspective on domestic social questions, an emerging civil rights movement and the influence of television and popular music presented challenges to the spirit of national consensus.

The Eisenhower years were characterized by prosperity and moderate conservatism at home and by the tensions of the Cold War abroad.

The 1950s witnessed a huge expansion of the middle class and the blossoming of a consumer culture. Crucial to the development of a new lifestyle of leisure and affluence was the rise of the new technology of television.

SUMMARY:*****must read*****

American society grew ever more prosperous in the Eisenhower era, as science, technology, and the Cold War fueled burgeoning new industries such as electronics and aviation. Women joined the movement into the increasingly white-collar workforce, and chafed at widespread restrictions they faced.

A new consumer culture, centered on television, fostered a new ethic of leisure and enjoyment, including more open expressions of sexuality in popular entertainment. Intellectuals and artists criticized the focus on private affluence rather than the public good. The abstract expressionism of Jackson Pollock and the “Pop” Art of Andy Warhol challenged traditional views of painting. Many mainstream writers focused on the dilemmas of modern postwar society, particularly on the problems of middle-class suburbanites. Formerly underrepresented groups such as Jewish, African American, and southern writers had a striking new impact on American culture.

Using the new medium of television to enhance his great popularity, grandfatherly “Ike” was ideally suited to soothe an America badly shaken by the Cold War and Korea. Eisenhower was slow to go after Joseph McCarthy, but the demagogue’s bubble finally burst. Eisenhower also reacted cautiously to the beginnings of the civil rights movement but sent troops to Little Rock to enforce court orders. While his domestic policies were moderately conservative, they left most of the New Deal in place.

Despite John Dulles’s tough talk, Eisenhower’s foreign policies were also generally cautious. He avoided military involvement in Vietnam, although aiding Diem, and he pressured Britain, France, and Israel to resolve the Suez crisis.

Eisenhoweralso refused to intervene in the Hungarian revolt and sought negotiations to thaw the frigid Cold War. Dealing with Nikita Khrushchev proved difficult, as Sputnik, the Berlin Crisis, the U-2 incident, and Fidel Castro’s Cuban revolution all kept Cold War tensions high.

QUOTES:

They [Conservatives] tell us… that ordinary men [and women] can’t always be political “heroes… But keep looking around you and why not search out the conditions of such heroism… they [Conservatives] stand in the way of a release of the imagination — about the cold war, the Soviet bloc, the politics of peace, about any new beginnings at home and abroad. ”

C. Wright Mills, “Letter to the New Left”, 1960***change is coming in the 1960s –individual action within “grassroots” movements lead the changes.

“We pay for a single fighter plane with half a million bushels of wheat. We pay for a single destroyer with new homes that could have housed 8,000 people. This world in arms is not spending money alone. It is spending the sweat of its laborers, the genius of its scientists, the hopes of its children.”

“Under the cloud of threatening war, it is humanity hanging from a cross of iron.”

Dwight David Eisenhower (IKE), April 16, 1953, “Chance for Peace speech,” to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, Washington D.C.Foreshadows IKE’s warning in his farewell address of the dangerous growing influence of the Military-Industrial complex on our government

“I AM INVISIBLE, UNDERSTAND, SIMPLY BECAUSE PEOPLE REFUSE TO SEE ME…”

Ralph Ellison, “The Invisible Man,” on being Black in America…

“Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other "tangible" factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does.”

“We conclude that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.”

Chief Justice Earl Warren, writing in a UNANIMOUS (9-0) decision from the Supreme Court case, “Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 1954”

Educational Segregation in the US prior to the Brown decision (1954)

“This unwarranted exercise of power by the Court, contrary to the Constitution, is creating chaos and confusion in the States principally affected. It[the Brown decision] is destroying the amicable relations between the white and Negro races that have been created through 90 years of patient effort by the good people of both races. It has planted hatred and suspicion where there has been heretofore friendship and understanding… We pledge ourselves to use all lawful means to bring about a reversal of this decision, which is contrary to the Constitution, and to prevent the use of force in its implementation…In this trying period, as we all seek to right this wrong…”

“The Southern Manifesto,” in response to the Supreme Court’s decision in Brown, March 12, 1954, 84th Congress, signed by 19 Senators and 84 Representatives from the following states; Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. {Both Senators from North Carolina and Hugh Q. Alexander who represented the 9th Congressional District which included Iredell County}

The Civil Rights Movement is AIDED by the Cold War and TV---to expose the “hypocrisy” in America---and to represent our country to the world in a more positive light---BUT—PEOPLE DIE IN THE STRUGGLE---REGARDLESS OF THE NON-VIOLENT APPROACH---OF SOME---due to the immense battle of some who believed it was their “right” (negative liberty) to discriminate—just as some had believed a century before it was their “right” (negative liberty) to OWN HUMAN BEINGS***and who ever dared to challenge that precious liberty would have to FIGHT TO TAKE IT AWAY.

Intro:

Americans yearned for a period of calm in which they could pursue without distraction their new visions of consumerist affluence.THE NATION NEEDED A REST FROM 20 YEARS OF DEPRESSION AND WAR.

Yet the American people unexpectedly found themselves in the early 1950s dug into the frontlines of the Cold War abroad and dangerously divided at home over the explosive issues of communism and civil rights.

The Advent of Eisenhower

The Election of 1952 –

Dwight D. Eisenhower (IKE) Republican33.9 Million442

Adlai StevensonDemocrat27.4 Million 89

Eisenhower wins Texas, Tennessee, Florida and Virginia---All states in the Democratic “Solid South.”

Adlai Stevenson was the Governor of Illinois and seemed to be lost from the beginning due to the Korean War crisis continuing, Truman’s unpopular firing of General MacArthur, and the 2nd Red Scare which had intimated that their were communists in our Federal Government, especially among the “too liberal – New Deal Democrats.”

The accusations that “liberals are communists” is used by the Republicans and conservatives against any “liberal” idea that arises during this period—especially civil rights and will continue to be used against liberals for the remainder of the Cold War---*************** this “tactic” is very effective at times---and destroys the “old left” (new deal liberal) dominance—to be replaced in 1960 by a “New Left,” a new younger generation (WWII & Baby Boomers) of liberals led by JFK and others.

The Republicans choose Richard M. Nixon as IKE”s VP candidate,Senator from California, in a concession to the extremist anti-communist right-wing part of the Republican Party. Nixon, who we will see often from this point forward, was a former member of HOUSE UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES COMMISSION and became a famous “RED-HUNTER,” during the trials of suspected communists in the House of Representatives.Nixon during the election is reported to have control of a secret “slush fund,” of campaign contributions, (foreshadowing the WATERGATE conspiracy of the 1970’s due to which Nixon will “resign” from the Presidency in shame, the only President EVER, to have done so) ---Cleverly, however, at this time---Nixon uses the “New Media, TV,” to get out of trouble---He goes on National Television to speak directly to the American People—in the famous, “CHECKERS SPEECH,” Feb. 1952, –in which he defended himself, attacked his opponents, and states that REGARDLESS OF WHAT ANYONE SAID, HE INTENDED TO KEEP ONE GIFT: A BLACK AND WHITE DOG WHO HAD BEEN NAMED CHECKERS BY HIS CHILDREN---the speech was seen by 60 Million viewers, the largest television audience to that time---and led to an outpouring of public support ---millions sent telegrams supporting Nixon 

This begins an important trend in American Politics due to the immense power of this “NEW MEDIA, TV.”

“It was a little cocker spaniel dog in a crate that he'd sent all the way from Texas. Black and white spotted. And our little girl—Tricia, the 6-year-old—named it Checkers. And you know, the kids, like all kids, love the dog and I just want to say this right now, that regardless of what they say about it, we're gonna keep it.”

Richard Nixon, “Checkers Speech,” September 23, 1952

Eisenhower, IKE, was already the most popular American of his time, “I Like Ike,” campaign buttons were enormously popular. He was an authentic hero as WWII Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe, Chief of the Joint Chief of Staff after the War, First Supreme Commander of NATO, and had just ended his Presidency of Columbia University in NYC. Ike was older, 63, and seemed to give a “grandfatherly,” impression—calm and in control at all times---very reassuring to the American People after the chaos of the last 20 years.

Despite his age and calm demeanor, Ike was a fighting Texan, and came out swinging---claiming that the Democrats and Truman and his boys, were SOFT ON COMMUNISM AND THAT HE WOULD TRAVEL TO KOREA TO END THE WAR, which he does after threatening China with Nukes, --he also becomes the 1st Presidential Candidate in US History to do TV CAMPAIGN COMMERCIALS—40 20 second commercials in which he gave brief answers to questions that appeared to be in a “live setting,” but were taped separately and put together later--- This foreshadows the significance that TV will have in politics, still today, especially as a threat to the Political Parties which traditionally had chosen candidates behind closed doors in “smoke-filled rooms,” THIS “NEW MEDIA, TV” NOW GAVE INDIVIDUALS THE ABILITY TO REACH THE VOTERS DIRECTLY AND A CANDIDATES MESSAGE, “CRAFTED,” TO THE AUDIENCE BY SPECIALISTS---“SOUND-BITE” POLITICS---discussing complicated issues in 30 seconds or less—becomes the standard---********

“Ike” Takes Command

Ike went to Korea and seven months later, after threatening China with nuclear annihilation, an armistice was signed that ended the Korean War. 54,000 Americans died—as well as a million + of various nationalities –Korea was divided at the 38th parallel---communism had been “contained,” and the war had been “limited,”—no nukes—the COLD WAR CONTINUED.

The Rise and Fall of Senator Joseph McCarthy---The 2nd Red Scare—McCarthyism

A Senator from Wisconsin McCarthy’s popularity and power swelled to immense proportions due to his popular ANTI-COMMUNIST crusade---

McCarthy 1st comes onto the scene in February of 1950 (Truman is Pres.) in a speech in Wheeling, West Virginia---where he states that the current Secretary of State, Dean Acheson, knowingly employed 205 Communist Party members. Later, when asked to name names, he claimed only 57, but gave no names… and in the end NEVER PROVED ONE.

But the speech won him national visibility, and his Republican colleagues realized the usefulness, politically, of this kind of attack on the Democrats---encouraging him to continue---“If one case doesn’t work try another,” (Republican Senator Taft)

McCarthy grew bolder and his accusations spread more wildly after the Republicans win the Presidency in 1952 as well as slim majorities in both the Senate and House of Representatives. He even went so far as to accuse General George Marshall—chief of staff during WWII and Secretary of State and Defense under Truman---as being “part of a conspiracy so immense and an infamy so black as to dwarf any previous venture in the history of man.”

In a growing atmosphere of suspicion and fear [2nd Red scare] McCarthy was not the first nor most effective “Red-Hunter,” BUT WAS SURELY THE MOST RUTHLESS—and does the most damage to American Traditions of fair play and free speech.

The careers of countless government officials, writers and actors were ruined (black lists) after McCarthy had “named” them, often unfairly, as communists or sympathizers.—Politicians Trembled due to The majority of American People approved of McCarthy’s Crusade******

***Eisenhower privately loathed McCarthy—But—stayed out of his way—“I will not get in the gutter with that guy,” but this approach had a very negative effect on our future leaders at the State Department due to the immense # of officials who either resigned or were fired---and lacked the support from IKE—thus, the effect later is that many good specialists who would have been available to advise on VIETNAM & Cold War policy simply left rather than deal with the CRAZY McCarthy*****

McCarthy was stopped in his tracks---in 1954---when he attacked the U.S. Army*******

The Army was not scared of McCarthy---and fought back—35 days of NATIONALLY TELEVISED HEARINGS----20 MILLION AMERICANS WATCHED***and the growing power of TV as a political force was again demonstrated***McCarthy’s rudeness and lack of knowledge was apparent to THE AMERICAN PEOPLE---the Army televised hearings CRUSHED McCarthy---he lost the support of the American People—thus is power--- and is punished by the US Senate in a vote for conduct “unbecoming a Senator,” and he dies of liver failure three years later a broken man.

“McCarthyism”--though is entrenched in the American Language afterwards---[Arthur Miller’s Play, “The Crucible,” was written at this time as a critique of McCarthyism as a ”Witch-Hunt”] –McCarthyism represents the idea that the dangerous forces of unfairness and fear that a democratic society {power of majority} can unleash on its citizens.

Desegregating the South

**In 1950 there were 15 million Black Citizens in the United States and approximately 10 million lived in the JIM CROW SEGREGATED South.

***Everyday of their lives in the South they dealt with a bizarre set of separate social arrangements that kept them insulated from whites, economically inferior, and politically powerless in a cruel and stifling atmosphere of danger, everyday.

Only about 20% of Blacks were registered to vote---and in the Deep South States with the majority or close to majority populations, like Mississippi and South Carolina, only as much as 5% were registered to vote---EVERY ASPECT OF SOUTHERN LIFE WAS REGULATED BY SEPARATION**** EVERY ASPECT***IF YOU VIOLATED THIS RULE******VIOLENCE****WAS THE RESPONSE*****BY LYNCHING, MUTILATION, MURDER---THE LAW WAS ON THE SIDE OF THOSE WHO SUPPORTED THE “MASTER RACE” IDEOLOGY

African-Americans continued to be asked to suffer in silence--- HOWEVER, WWII had generated a new militancy and restlessness and organizations such as the NAACP and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) continued to push for change using the court system---the Legal Defense Fund of the NAACP, Thurgood Marshall (who later becomes the 1st black Supreme Court Justice), had success in the Federal Courts recently, Smith v. Allright, 1944—and Sweatt v. Painter, 1950 – THE COURTS WOULD GIVE THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT ITS BIGGEST AND MOST SIGNIFICANT VICTORY**** IN 1954.