ILLICIT EXCAVATION IN CONTEMPORARY CHINA (author: HE Shuzhong)
Timeline of Relevant Dynasties in Chinese History
i. Neolithic Hongshan Culture (3500 BCE)
a. (6) Chifeng City, Inner Mongolia
ii. Zhou Period (1000 – 256 BCE)
a. Jing State, Shanxi Province: one of the most important states of the Zhou period. Famous for its pottery, which once fetched 1000 USD on the market, but which has dropped down to 5 USD today. Since Jing pottery is no longer available in its archaeological context, little can be gleamed about the people who made or used it.
b. (5) Chu Culture epicenter, Jingzhou, Hubei Province
iii. Warring States Period (770 – 221 BCE)
a. (2) Mausoleums of Kings of the Zhao State, Hebei Province
iv. Han, Wei and Jing Dynasties (206 BCE – 420 CE)
a. (3) The Ancient City of Luolan, Nuoqiang County, Xinjiang Province
b. (4) Niya, Mingfong County, Xinjiang Province
v. Tang Dynasty (618 – 907 CE)
a. (1) Ancient Tombs at Reshui. (Tubo (Tibetan) site, Qinghai Province)
vi. Liao Dynasty (907 – 1125 CE)
a. A poorly understood dynasty. No known surviving Liao site or any Liao archaeological material remains undisturbed in context.
b. (6) Chifeng City, Inner Mongolia
vii. Song Dynasty (960 – 1279 CE)
a. (7) Underwater site, Huaguang Island, Xisha Islands, South China Sea
viii. Yuan Dynasty (1279 – 1368 CE) (Mongolian rule)
ix. Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644 CE)
x. Qing Dynasty (1616 – 1911 CE) (Manchu rule)
xi. Republic of China (1911 – 1949 CE)
xii. People’s Republic of China (China (PRC)) (1949 – present)
a. 1950: rules passed against object export
b. 1961: regulation on protection adopted, including excavation of archaeological sites and export of objects
c. 1966 – 1976: Cultural Revolution. Government fueled campaign to purge the past. Massive obliteration of cultural relics.
d. 1978: Large scale economic reforms introduced. Coastal China, in particular, marches towards a free market economy.
e. 1982: Law on the Protection of Cultural Heritage ratified. Amended in 1988 and in 1991. Accordingly, national standards and rules against exports were also adopted, and over 30 regulations were passed, instituting protection at the regional level.
f. 1985: Demand for antiquities rises, market prices escalate. Western China, in particular, is hit by theft from museums and illegal excavation activity.
g. 1988: Internationally organized groups emerge, strengthening Mainland ties to the Hong Kong and London markets.
h. 1990: Sotheby’s Art Market Review found in poor countryside areas.
i. 1992: an international auction house is established in Beijing, fueling more illicit excavation and trafficking activity.
j. 1995: at least 200 auction houses and antiquities trade areas have been established, increasing widespread demand for archaeological material.
China
Political and socioeconomic conditions
- Centralized government; high level of inefficiency; complex bureaucracy; no transparency.
- Fertile breeding ground for illicit activity: transitioning society characterized by rapid change, widespread corruption, wide-scale construction, significant room for interpretation and a large degree of flexibility largely dependant on backdoor operations. Personal relations, who you are and who you know count.
- Burgeoning, population with high rates of unemployment and low wages.
- Large-scale rural urban migration; rapid rise in income inequality; low levels of education particularly in rural areas; history of instability among the peasantry.
- No traditional legal system; weak legislation; rule of law extremely difficult to implement effectively (ex. Intellectual property theft endemic)
Looting
- Marauding looters often have ‘sponsorship’ with dividends increasing annually.
- Illicit activity tied to tourism, handicrafts, construction and fake replicas. Chinese customs service intercepted 110,000 objects between 1991 and 1995, over 12,000 in 1997, and over 5000 in 1998.
- Cultural property found in situ is owned by the state and must be reported immediately upon discovery though little is.
- Hong Kong: central player
o largest Chinese antiquities area
o an information hub
o the most important route out of China.
Limitations:
- lacking resources
- negligence
- national humiliation
- uncoordinated effort
Administration
- State Administration of Cultural Heritage (SACH) (formerly: National Administration of Cultural Heritage (NACH))
- China is party to the 1970 Convention, the 1972 World Heritage Convention and the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention
Cases
1. The Ancient Tombs at Reshui, Dulan County, Qinghai Province
∙ Tibetan (Tubo) site protected at the National Level.
∙ Period: ca. Tang Dynasty (618 – 907 CE)
∙ Area: + 200 km2
∙ Scale: + 300 Tombs
∙ Named as one of the “Ten Most Famous Archaeological Sites” in 1985 and 1996.
∙ 1999: Explosives and bulldozers used to “mine” the site. Word spreads about the demand for Tubo antiquities from an auction house. Over a 5 month period when land lies fallow at least 21 tombs are plundered. Broken funerary objects and bones are found scattered around the site. 50 looters are arrested, but large-scale illicit activity continues.
2. Mausoleums of Kings of the Zhao State, Handan County, Hebei Province
∙ Period: Warring States Period (770 – 221 BCE)
∙ 5 mausoleums protected at the provincial level. Zhao jades are believed among the most important in China.
∙ March, 1997: Looters use explosives to blast open the second mausoleum, taking more than 500 bronze, gold ornaments and jade artifacts. Half are quickly shuttled through HK and London while the other half are purchased by a ‘collector’ in Anhui for export to Canada.
∙ October, 1997: Several looters, working for the ‘collector’, are arrested just before finishing a second plundering operation
∙ 1998 and 1999: Some antiquities are returned from the UK and Canada, but the damage is irreparable. The historical, artistic and scientific value of the site is severely compromised.
3. The Ancient City of Loulan, Nuoqiang County, Xinjiang Province
∙ Period: ca. Han, Wei and Jing Dynasties (206 BCE – 420 CE)
∙ Important trading center along the ancient Silk Road, protected at the National Level.
∙ Early 1900’s: Excavated by Swedes, Brits, American and Japanese explorers.
∙ 1998: Ancient tombs are excavated by looters, who receive 10,000 USD from a ‘collector’ for an illicit sale of archeological material. Some looters are arrested upon returning home. Illegal excavation at the site continues.
4. Niya, Mingfong County, Xinjiang Province
∙ Location: Taklamakan Desert
∙ Important site along the ancient Silk Road, protected at the National Level
∙ Period: Jingjue State of the Han, Wei and Jing Dynasties (206 BCE – 420 CE)
∙ Area: +70 km2
∙ Noted for ancient mummies and inscribed wooden tablets in Chinese and an early Indian script.
∙ Illicit activity exists but is difficult to trace due to the sheer size of the site.
∙ 1998: local arrests made for antiquities found in homes and allegations that numerous inscribed wooden tablets had been smuggled abroad.
5. Chu Culture epicenter, Jingzhou City, Hubei Province
∙ Period: Zhou 1000 – 256 BCE
∙ Chu Culture: rich history of art and philosophy
∙ Lacquer and bamboo strips are emblematic. Significant for their contents, which document ancient civilization and classic literature.
∙ Over 1000 tombs have been plundered with artifacts occasionally surfacing on the national and international market.
∙ Shanghai Museum repatriated 1200 Chu culture bamboo tablets from the Hong Kong market. This gesture is significant but the extent of material lost is incalculable.
6. Site of Neolithic Hongshan Culture (3500 BCE) and Liao Dynasty (907 – 1125 CE) Chifeng City, Inner Mongolia
∙ Poorly studied archaeological sites are thought to have contained documentation of the culture of ancient northern people, which differs significantly from the Central Plains region.
∙ 1997: Hongshan Culture stone, jade and pottery, and Liao Dynasty gold and silver ware are auctioned for staggering amounts, driving traffickers wild. Government officials estimate conservatively that 4000 ancient tombs and other historical sites are pillaged. Local archaeologists suggest as many as 15,000, erasing all evidence of past cultures from this area.
7. Underwater archaeological sites
∙ Scale: 20,000 sites
∙ 1999: archaeologists discover a Song dynasty (960 – 1279 CE) shipwreck and large area of drifted antiquities. Surprisingly, looters had already penetrated the site with explosives, magnifying the extent of illicit activity.
Ø The integrity of a site is paramount to maintaining the archeological heritage.
Ø Pillaging is detrimental to the archaeological record and destroys knowledge about the history of mankind permanently.