1
Phil141g12
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
Philosophy 141g:
The Professions and the Public Interest in American Life
Spring 2012
Mon/Weds 2:00-3:15---in MHP 101
Instructor: Dallas Willard
Office MHP 205D; phone: 213-740-5181
Office hours 12:00-1:30 MW and by appointment
Home phone: 818-716-0652 (e-mail: dwillard@.usc.edu)
BASIC THEMES AND CONTENT OF THIS COURSE
In 1968 the distinguished American sociologist, Talcott Parsons, wrote that the professions have "become the most important single component in the structure of modern societies." This is even more true for the America of the 2000's, as the increasing complexity of life makes it increasingly difficult for the individual or the public to know itself and its needs. The human necessity, or at least justification, for the professions stands in precarious balance with the power, status and mythafications surrounding them. Professional process, power and aura can easily lead to harm of the individuals involved, as clients or practitioners, and to corruption of social and political life away from American democratic and egalitarian ideals. A philosophy of society adequate to contemporary life therefore requires an understanding of how the professional sub-structures in society operate and how they can best serve.
By public interest (or “the public good”) we understand those goods which all members of society may reasonably be presumed to benefit from, directly or indirectly, or at least have access to. For example, the public has an interest in commerce, legal institutions and processes, public order, health care, education, housing, transportation, and information flow. That there should be corresponding activities in society, and that they should be well conducted by certain qualified individuals, is, precisely, in the public interest. That is, it is in the interest or for the benefit of all citizens, and of all citizens more or less alike--and, it is reasonable to think, of society as whole.
If the interests of the public are to be well served, the activities involved in each of the areas of "public interest," in the sense indicated, must be well done. This requires extraordinary dedication and training on the part of individuals engaged in those activities, and well as significant regulation of what they do. Because of the special knowledge such regulation requires, however, it must largely be regulation by others trained and immersed in that same activity. Special dedication, training, knowledge and self-regulation, when institutionalized in the appropriate respects, form a profession as a social entity.
The benefit to a society of well-functioning professions should be very obvious, and will be developed at length. But it is increasingly obvious in American life now, perhaps more than at other times and places in history, that professionalism has built into it tendencies that diminish the potential for public good when allowed to run free. Among these are inclinations to maximize the egoistic rewards and financial advantages that derive from the professional status as explained above. Being-a-professional is a status and an identity in society at large, which gives recognition and social power, along with remarkable financial opportunities, to many practitioners. It simultaneously shelters them from judgment by the public which they are supposed to serve.
This may have two unfortunate results, among others:one is individual obsession with personal advancement (status and rewards) within the professional framework. The professional may in fact come to focus upon such advancement to the detriment of the excellence of their performance in their social role. The other is that the qualities most prized within the profession may not be the ones most conducive to the relevant public goods. This is usually a highly contested matter, but, for example, if uncovering "Watergates" becomes the standard of recognition in journalism, will not much good that could come from a broader interpretation of "news" or information flow be lost to the public--e.g. detailed information on situations in financial, educational, cultural and other segments of life, which most likely are of greater importance to the citizen than anything of a sensational, muck-raking, crook-finding nature? And will not significant harm be done by a sensationalized press, as with the "Nannygate" incidents of some years ago? Similarly for medicine, law and education. What comes to be recognized and rewarded as "good work" and "success"within the professional circles may well be in conflict with the public good that the professions exist to serve. (E.g. “specialization” and research in medicine or elsewhere.) Then you will frequently hear things defended as 'professional' that seem obviously harmful to society, if not clearly immoral. "Being professional" actually becomes used as a point of evaluation that is independent of public service.
The distortion of professional function and its effects on the public interest are many-sided phenomena of grave consequence for the quality of life in any society. They far surpass specifically moral questions and are a major issue for understanding what a modern society is and how it functions well or badly. It is by no means a new topic, but it is one of currently renewed interest and significance. Two major works published on it in the last two decades: Derek Bok, The Cost of Talent: How Executives and Professionals Are Paid and How It Affects America (1993), and William Sullivan, Work and Integrity: The Crisis and Promise of Professionalism in America, (1995). A sharper critique is in Ivan Illich, Disabling Professions.
The chief aim of this course is to provide understanding of how professionalization, the organization of important segments of life into professions, positively and negatively influences contemporary American Life. After a brief general introduction to the issues and problems of social philosophy, it considers how the professions interact with the larger social and political processes of American life, as well as the effects of professionalization on individuals. Extensive study is made of certain topics, such as: (1). How well the profession serves or does not serve as a structure contributing to personal identity and meaningful life for the professional, (2). The extent to which society can permit a profession to dictate the terms of its own existence, (3). The relationship between professions and the middle class, and (4). How a balance can be maintained between the profession's legitimate requirement for self-regulation and the interests of the public and of the individual lives which it exists to serve.
Two significant issues are kept in the open throughout the course: (I). The effects of professional 'status' on other relationships vital to a social system: e.g. family, friendship, community and economic relations. (II). The problems of government regulation of the professions: problems caused by the general dependence of governmental processes (in legislatures, courts and regulatory agencies) upon “expert testimony” from the professions, and by the fact that the professions claim to alone possess the knowledge and expertise required in order for the government to regulate them and, in general, to perform its (the government’s) own functions well.
It will be maintained that the specifically moral dimension of professional life is fundamental to its nature and function. The professions can serve public goods well, only if the individual members of the particular professions routinely act in ways that supremely promote the specific public good for the sake of which their particular profession exists; and only if they do not, and are not prepared to sacrifice that good for their own personal gain, monetary or otherwise; and only if they are appropriately vigilant to ensure that members of their profession by and large conform to this morally ideal pattern—and when called-for, to the extent of self-sacrifice. This is a thesis which the Instructor will maintain in this course, open to critical discussion and possible refutation. If it is true, excellence as a professional is never a mere matter of technical expertise and facility, nor is the attainment of professional status primarily a matter of personal success. One could be as proficient as possible, and also highly regarded and well-rewarded, but yet be a failure in their profession. Thus, the professions must also be considered as avenues of moral fulfillment and meaningful human existence. This is how they have been viewed for most of their history.
The treatment of the professions in this course is heavily historical, because the professions just are historical realities. Though they have an essence, they are not creations of pure rationality, and therefore they cannot be understood without consideration of their histories.
Our usual procedure in class time will be to emphasize and outline main points, lines of reasoning, and historical processes. Much of the time will be given to working through assigned readings. Often, at the end of a class period, the Instructor will comment on main points to watch for in the readings for the next class. Please bring those readings with you to the next class meeting, so that you can mark them as we work through them. Thus, for the next meeting you should bring the readings from Plato and John Dewey.
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REQUIRED TEXTS:
Callahan, Joan C., Ethical Issues in Professional Life, New York, OxfordUniversity Press.
Dewey, John, The Public and Its Problems, Denver, Alan Swallow, 1927
Frankl, Viktor, Man’s Search for Meaning, paperback.
Haber, Samuel, The Quest for Authority and Honor in the American
Professions, 1750-1900, Chicago, University of Chicago
Press. (Possibly out of Print: Available as a Course Reader?)
Hatch, Nathan O., ed., The Professions in American History, Notre Dame, IN.,
University of Notre Dame Press, 1988. (Out of Print: Available as a Course
Reader)
Macpherson, C. B., The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy, New
York, OxfordUniversity Press, 1977. ( Out of Print. In a Course Reader)
Maxwell, John C., There’s No Such Thing as “Business” Ethics, Warner Books, 2003
***
Other shorter selections may be made available as handouts from time to time. Especially, current articles and news stories directly bearing on matters being discussed as we go through the course.
References will also be made to:
Bledstein, Burton J., The Culture of Professionalism:
The Middle Class and the Development of Higher
Education in America, New York: Norton, 1976
Bok, Derek, The Cost of Talent, New York, Free Press.
Friedman, Lawrence M., A History of American Law, New
York, Simon and Schuster, 1973.
Geison, Gerald L., ed., Professions and Professional
Ideologies in America, Chapel Hill, Un. of North
Carolina Press, 1983
Kimball, Bruce A., The "True Professional Ideal" in
America: A History, Cambridge, MA., Blackwell,
1992
Kraybill Donald B., and Phyllis Good, edd., Perils of
Professionalism, Scottsdale, PA., Herald Press, 1982.(Selections from this in the last “Course Reader.)
Plato, The Republic, Raymond Larson, translator,
ArlingtonHeights, IL., AHM Publishing
Corporation, 1979. (Selection in 1st Course Reader)
Sullivan, W. M., Work and Integrity: The Crisis and the Promise of Professionalism, New York: HarperCollins, 1995. This may be available as a text.
Illich, Ivan, Disabling Professions, London: Marion Boyars.
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FORMAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE COURSE
One mid-term (7th week) and a two-hour final exam. The Professor grades the exams.
Three seven-to-eight-pages-or-so papers, due in weeks 4, 12 and 15, on assigned topics. These will be handled by the Teaching Assistants.
Attendance and prepared participation in the weekly discussion sections. (Attendance and participation in these sessions will be thoroughly noted by the TA’s and they will be involved in grading for your final grade. Get to know your TA)
Attendance at lectures. (Please note: Attendance at lectures is not optional for this course, and attendance sign-up sheets may be passed out from time to time.) There is a great deal of reading, for your benefit. But you will be held responsible on tests only for the reading material explicitly covered in class.
Please note: The subject matter and readings may look a little scary, but the Instructor will see to it that the material is presented in a way that is suited to a 1styearUniversity level student.
Papers will be marked as one day late if turned in after 3:15PM on the day they are due, two days late after 3:15 of the next day and so on. For each day late, one grade level (e.g. from A- to B+) will be lost. Valid excuses are of course permitted. (See SCampus.)
Your use of a lap-top computer in class is permitted on the condition that nothing other than notes on the current lecture will be present on the screen during the lecture.
All cell-phones and other electronic devices must be turned off throughout class.
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MAIN TOPICS DEALT WITH WEEK-BY-WEEK,
AND ASSIGNMENTS:
Week 1: January 9-13--
The 'Good Life' and Public Goods. What is “the public good”? Public goods. How society is essentiallyORGAN-ized, and how any Desirable Human Existence Depends upon the organization of Society into `specializations' or `divisions of labor'. From Plato to Henry Ford.
The special position of the state, as coercive power
in society, isdiscussed, along with the crucial role
of specializedknowledge and skill in governance. The
professional is seen as a trustee of the public good.
Readings: Selections from Plato, Republic, BK II (in Course Reader #1, pp. 14-17 ).
Dewey, The Public and Its Problems, Chaps. 1 & 2.
“Evident Truths,” (In Course Reader #1, pp. 18-23)
Recommended readings during weeks 1-3:>
Hatch, The Professions in American History, pp. 1-12 (Course Reader #2)
Kraybill & Good, Perils of Professionalism, pp. 7-24
Kimball, The `True Professional Ideal' in America, "Introduction."
Plato, Republic, Books VIII & IX.>
Discussion Sections: DoNOT meet the first week of classes!
NOTE THAT JANUARY 11 IS A UNIVERSITY HOLIDAY!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Week 2: January 16-20--Democracy--Democratic ideals and institutions are added to the mix of social and political order. Brief historical discussion is provided, emphasizing special social benefits, problems and dangers of democracy. Democracy as an ideal of human character and well-being.
Readings: Dewey, Chapters III-VI
Macpherson, Life and Times of Liberal Democracy (Course Reader #1)
Callahan, Ethical Issues in Prof. Life, pp. 26-46.
Discussion Sections focus on Dewey, Chap. 4, especially on
his view of how the “public” gets “eclipsed.”
Week 3: January 23-27--The Emergence of Professions as distinctive social realities in Western Civilization:
Clergy/Minister/Priesthood
Lawyer
Doctor/Medicine
The Soldier (Knight)
The Courtier
Two case studies: Accounting and Business (are these professions?) and the Formation of Capitalist Society.
Readings: Continue Macpherson, see study notes on him (attached).
ALSO:Selections from International Encyclopedia of the
Social Sciences, and Encyclopedia of the Social
Sciences, (Course Reader #1, pp. 24-30 & 41-43)
Brandeis, “Business—A Profession,” (Course Reader 43-50)
Ruskin, “Unto This Last”/”The Roots of Honor,”
(Right after Brandeis in 1stCourse Reader. Pp. 51-52)
Maxwell, There Is No Such Thing as “Business” Ethics.
Haber, The Quest for Authority and Honor in the
American Professions, pp. ix-14.
Discussion sections focus on Callahan 26-45. Work through
the study questions on pp. 44-45.
***
Assignment: 7-8 page paper, due the second class meeting of next week (Feb. 1), on topic to be specified.
Week 4: January 30-February 3--Professions in the American Historical Context:
RELIGION/CLERGY. General social role of religion.
Special knowledge and function of experts in an
overwhelmingly Protestant culture. The vast
importance of the clergy for the American historical
context. Saints, pastors, evangelists and crazies
today. Problems of regulation. “Separation of Church and State.”
PAPER DUEWEDNESDAY FEB. 1 AT CLASS TIME
Readings: Haber, The Quest for Authority and Honor in the
American Professions, 1750-1900, pp. 15-44
Hatch, Chapter 4 (Course Reader #2)
RECOMMENDED: Kimball, pp. 18-106.>
Discussion Sections focus on Chapter 4 of Hatch, and especially on whether
or not Clergy could still be regarded as a profession today.
Week 5: Feb. 6-10--Professions in the American Historical Context:
THE LAW/LAWYERS & JUDGES. General social role of legal
institutions and practices. Peculiarities of the
American context and experience that shape specifically
American (democratic, egalitarian) legal practices.
The lawyer as entrepreneur and as the Knight of
Justice. Problems of regulation
Readings: Haber, pp. 67-87
Hatch, Chapter 2
RECOMMENDED: Kimball, pp. 106-197
And Friedman, A History of American_Law, pp. 13-126.>
Discussion Sections focus on Haber, pp. 67-87, and
especially the controversy between Blackstone and
Wilson over the foundation of law. (82ff)
MID-TERM EXAM ON FEB. 15TH. REVIEW QUESTIONS GIVEN ON THE 6TH.
Week 6:Feb. 13-17--Professions in the American Historical Context:
MEDICINE/MEDICAL DOCTORS. General social role of the
medical doctor. The colonial and frontier experience.
Doctor as a scholar and a gentleman. Emergence of
licensing and medical schools. The impact of advancing
science and technology on medical practice. The
American obsession with health and death. The issue of
cost and availability in the American context.
Problems of regulation.
Readings: Haber, pp. 45-65
Hatch, Chapter 3
RECOMMENDED: Kimball, pp. 303-309.>
Discussion Sections focus on Hatch, Chapter 3, and
especially on the role of the AMA in elevating the
profession of Medicine. (You might want to glance
at Illich, pp. 41-67.)
Note that February 20 is a university holiday. Celebrating Millard Fillmore & Jimmy Carter and other outstanding US Presidents.
Week 7: Feb. 20-24--Professions in the American Historical Context:
Egalitarianism, Religion and the Professions in Mid-
19th Century middle America: Cincinnati and Memphis.
Readings: Haber, pp. 91-190.
(Maybe Bok, pp. v-41, Handout?)
Discussion Sections focus on Callahan, pp. 130-141.
Week 8: February 27-March 2--Professions in the American Historical Context:
A new start: Professions re-established in a new social
order, 1880-1900. Especially medicine, which becomes a new model for professionalism. The physician a man to be honored for knowledge and self-sacrificing devotion--though not very well paid, would you believe?.
Readings: Haber, pp. 193-273 & 319-358.
Hatch, Chapter 3 (review)
Discussion Sections focus on Haber, pp. 276-293, issues around academic freedom and authority of university professors. What is academic freedom? Academic authority?