THE 18Th CENTURY: an AGE of ENLIGHTENMENT

THE 18th CENTURY: AN AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

FOCUS QUESTIONS

Who were the leading figures of the Enlightenment & what were their main contributions?
In what type of social environment did the philosophes thrive & what role did women play in that environment?
What innovations in art, music & literature occurred in the 18th century?
How did popular culture differ from high culture in the 18th century?
How did popular religion differ from institutional religion in the 18th century?
What is the relationship between the Scientific Revolution & the Enlightenment?

BACKGROUND

The earth-shattering work of the “natural philosophers” in the ______Revolution had affected only a relatively small number of Europe’s ______elite
In the 18th century this changed dramatically as a group of intellectuals known as the “______” popularized the ideas of the Scientific Revolution & used them to undertake a dramatic ______of all aspects of life
After the Scientific Revolution & the new ways of ______, scholars & philosophers began to reevaluate old notions about society as they ought new insight about beliefs regarding ______, religion, economics, & ______
In 1784 the German philosopher “______” defined the “______” as “man’s leaving his self-caused immaturity” whereas earlier periods had been handicapped by the inability to “use one’s intelligence w/o the guidance of another”
“Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own ______!”

The Enlightenment (Age of ______) was a movement of intellectuals who dared to know
They were greatly impressed with the ______s of the S.R. & when they used the word “reason” they were advocating the application of the scientific method to the understanding of all life
All institutions & all systems of thought were subject to the ______, scientific way of thinking if only people would free themselves from the shackles of old worthless traditions especially the religious ones
Reason, Natural Law, Hope & Progress----______buzz words

THE PATH TO ENLIGHTNMENT

The ______of the 18th century were especially influenced by the revolutionary ______of the 17th century
The popularization of Science, New Skepticism, the Impact of Travel Literature & the Legacy of Locke & Newton were the ______major intellectual changes that culminated in the intellectual movement of the Enlightenment
Bernard de ______(1657-1757) was the secretary of the French Royal Academy of Science who was able to communicate scientific knowledge in a clear & witty fashion that appealed to upper-class audiences in a meaningful way “Plurality of Worlds”-----no longer for experts but now part of ______(Science ideas like Newton’s was hard to read)
17th century scientists like Kepler & Newton did not want to undermine ______but as scientific knowledge spread more & more men & women began to question religious truths & values like “Pierre Bayle” (1647-1706) who remained a Protestant while becoming a leading critic/skeptic of traditional ______attitudes
He attacked superstition, religious intolerance & ______(the tendency to lay down principles as incontrovertibly true, without consideration of evidence or the opinions of others) & in his view compelling people to believe a particular set of religious ideas was wrong
______about both Christianity & European culture was nourished by travel reports from traders, missionaries, medical practitioners & ______who began to publish travel books that gave accounts of many different cultures-----James Cook “Cooks Travels” gave accounts of his journey to Tahiti, New Zealand & Australia
This gave way to “cultural ______” which is the view that no culture is superior to any other culture when comparing systems of morality, law, politics---It's the philosophical notion that all cultural ______are equally valid & that truth itself is relative, depending on the cultural ______
The intellectual inspiration for the Enlightenment came primarily from _____ Englishmen-----Isaac Newton who had the intellectuals convinced that by following “Newton’s Laws of Reasoning” they could discover ______that governed politics, economies, justice, religion & the arts & John Locke whose “Theory of Knowledge” that stated every person was born w/a blank mind therefore our knowledge is derived from our ______, not from heredity; from reason not from faith (You are a product of your environment)

The Philosphes & Their Ideas

The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were know by the French term “philosophes” although not all o f them were French & few were actually ______
They were literary people, professors, journalists, statesmen (______leaders), economists, political scientists & social reformers-----notice not da ______!!!
Most came from both the nobility & the middle class & a few from lower origins but it was overall a truly international & “______” movement (a person who has lived in & knows about many different parts of the world)

Philosophes Advocate Reason

Social critics in ______believed that people could apply reason to all aspects of life
5 concepts form the core of these beliefs
______– Believed truth could be discovered through reason or logical thinking
______– Believed that what is natural was also good & reasonable
______– Rejected the notion that people should find joy in the hereafter & urged people to seek well-being on earth
______– Stressed that society & humankind could improve
______– Called for the liberties the English people had won in their Glorious Revolution & Bill of Rights

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)

Hobbes was an ______philosopher known for his views on how humans could thrive in harmony while avoiding the perils & fear of societal ______
Was one of the founders of modern ______philosophy & political science
Published “______” in 1651 which established social contract theory, the foundation of most later Western political philosophy
He believed that all humans were naturally ______& ______
Without ______to keep order there would be “war… of every man against every man” & life would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutal & short”

He argued that for people to escape such a bleak life, people must hand over their rights to a stronger ruler & in exchange the people got law & order----- agreement called the “______”
The ruler needed to keep citizens under control because people acted in their own ______
In his view such a government was an absolute ______which could impose order & demand obedience

Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought:
The right of the ______
The natural ______of all men
The artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state)
The view that all legitimate political power must be "______" & based on the consent of the people; & a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid

John Locke (1632-1704)

Locke was an English philosopher & physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers & commonly known as the "Father of ______" (wide array of views)
He is equally important to social contract theory as his work greatly affected the development of “______” (investigation of what distinguishes justified belief from opinion) & “political philosophy” (study of ______)
His writings influenced Voltaire & Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American ______
Locke believed that people could learn from ______& improve ______
He criticized absolute monarchs & believed in ______& that all people are born free & equal with three natural rights- life, liberty & property-----sound familiar?-----It should!!
His book “Two Treatises of Government” published in 1689 (a written work dealing formally & systematically with a subject) said government’s purpose is to protect these rights & if the government fails to do so then the people have the right to ______it
He believed that a government gets its power from the consent of the ______(foundation of modern ______)
His contributions to classical republicanism & liberal theory are reflected in the U.S. Declaration of ______

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Montesquieu was a French writer that devoted himself to the study of political ______

His most famous work “The Spirit of the Laws” published in 1748 in which was a comparative study of governments in which he attempted to apply the ______method to the social & political arena to ascertain the “______” governing the social relationships of human beings
He distinguished 3 basic kinds of ______
______which are suitable for small states & based on citizens involvement
______which was appropriate for middle-sized states & grounded in the ruling class’s adherence to law
______(absolute power) which was appropriate for large empires & dependent on fear to inspire obedience

He believed that Britain had the best form of government & called the division of powers among different ______---separation of ______
Proposed separation of powers would keep any individual or group from gaining total control of ______
His ideas of checks & balances are the basis for the ______of the United States of America

Francois-Marie Arouet a.k.a. Voltaire (1694-1778)

Considered one of the most brilliant & ______philosophers & the greatest figure of the Enlightenment
Published more than _____ books of political essays, philosophy & drama & often used satire& made clergy, the ______& government targets of his writings
His writings made him enemies at the French court & twice he was sent to ______
He was ______to England for more than two years, but he never quit fighting for ______, reason, freedom of religious belief & freedom of speech
In 1763 he penned “Treatise on Toleration” which argued that religious toleration had created no ______for England & Holland & reminded governments that “all men are brothers under God”
He coined the word “______” which is a religious outlook that suggested the existence of a mechanic ______who had created the ______
Voltaire & other philosopohes believed that God had no direct ______in the world he had created & allowed it to run according to its own “______” (a body of unchanging moral principles regarded as a basis for all human conduct)
God did not extend grace or answer ______as Christians liked to believe
Jesus might be a good fellow but he was not ______as Christianity claimed

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

Diderot was a French philosopher, writer & the editor-in-chief of the famous “Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers” (17 volumes) which was a summary of all available knowledge which challenged the ______of the Roman Catholic Church & of the aristocratic ______, both of whom tried to suppress it
He promoted the optimistic belief that all knowledge could be acquired through scientific ______& the exercise of reason, and championed the value and uniqueness of the ______
He explored the idea that different individuals should be judged by different moral standards according to their ______
Diderot also suggested that ______should be tailored to the abilities and interests of the individual student & that students should learn to experiment & do research rather than simply acquiring ______

David Hume (1711-1776)

Generally regarded as one of the most important philosophers to write in English, Hume also well known in his own time as an ______& ______
A master stylist in any genre, his major philosophical work was “A Treatise of Human Nature” (1739–1740) in which he intended to develop a “science of man” by applying Newton’s experimental method to human ______---he thought he could discover certain general laws about human thinking & behavior
he intends to develop a “science of man” by applying Sir Isaac Newton’s experimental method to human mental behavior he intends to develop a “science of man” by applying Sir Isaac Newton’s experimental method to human mental behavior he intends to develop a “science of man” by applying Sir Isaac Newton’s experimental method to human mental behaviorAlthough Hume's more conservative contemporaries denounced his writings as works of skepticism & atheism, his influence is evident in the moral philosophy & economic writings of his close friend ______

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

Smith was a Scottish social philosopher & political economist & is viewed as one of the founders of the modern discipline of ______
He wrote “The Wealth of Nations” in 1776 which is thought of as the 1st work dedicated to the study of political ______
Developed ______basic principles of economics
Free Trade
Instead of gold & silver ______constituted the true wealth of a nation
The state should not interfere in ______matters as it should protect society from invasion (army), defend people from injustice & oppression (police) & keep up certain public works like roads & canals b/c private individuals could not afford to
His view was that the state should stay out of the lives of ______(economic liberalism) & (laissez-faire) or let the people do as they choose

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Won recognition as a writer of essays & often focused on individual rights or ______
Published “The Social Contract” in 1762 where he argued that civilization corrupted people’s natural goodness
He believed the only good ______is one that was freely formed by the people & guided by general will of society (______ democracy)
Under this ______people would give up some of their freedom in favor of the common good
He believed that legitimate government could come from consent of the ______& that all people were equal & the titles of nobility should be abolished
His treatise on “The Education of the Natural Man” was written b/c he believed that ______should foster rather than ______children’s natural instincts
Life ______were important b/c they were prompting of the heart & what was sought as balance b/t heart & mind & b/t sentiment (attitude) & ______
This made a precursor of the intellectual ,movement called “______” that dominated Europe at the beginning of the 19th century
Romanticism is the movement in the arts & literature emphasizing ______, subjectivity & the importance of the ______

Cesare Bonesana Beccaria (1738-1794)

Beccaria was an Italian philosopher that believed that laws existed to preserve social order, not avenge ______
He argued that a person should receive a speedy ______& that ______should never be used
The degree of the ______should be based on the crime & capital punishment should be abolished
He based his ideas about justice on the principle that government should seek the greatest ______for the greatest number of ______
His ideas influenced criminal law reforms in ______& North ______

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

Male writers had argued for more education for women & for women’s ______in marriage
Women writers also tried to improve the ______of women
Mary Astell wrote “A Serious Proposal to the Ladies” & said “If all men are born free, how is it that all women are born slaves?”
Mary Wollstonecraft Published “A vindication of the Rights of Women” in which she argued that women’s education should not be second to men’s, rather women need education to become ______& useful
She also urged women to enter the male-dominated fields of ______& ______

The Social Environment Of The Philosophes

Of great importance to the Enlightenment was the spread of its ideas to the literate elite of European society
Although the sale of books & treatises were crucial so was the “______” which is where philosophers, writers, artists, scientists & other great intellects would meet to discuss ______
The salon prompted ______& ______b/t upper-class men & women as well as spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment
Coffeehouses, cafes, reading clubs & public libraries were also established by the state as ______places to exchange ______

CULTURE & SOCIETY IN THE ENLIGHTENMENT

The intellectual adventure fostered by the philosophes was accompanied by both traditional practices & important changes in 18th century ______& ______

Innovation In Art, Music & Literature

Although the “______” & “______l” styles that had dominated the 17th century continued into the 18th century, by the 1730s a new style known as “______” had begun to affect decoration & architecture all over Europe
Baroque is often thought of as a period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion & clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance & grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, theater & music that began in ______around 1600
Neoclassical is based on the principles of ______& ______& is a revival of the styles & spirit of classic antiquity inspired directly from the classical period, which coincided & reflected the developments in philosophy & other areas of the Age of Enlightenment & was initially a reaction against the excesses of the preceding Rococo style (Ancient Greece or Ancient Rome)

The Rococo style emphasized grace & gentile action & rejected strict geometrical patterns & had a fondness for curves mixed with playful & witty ______(Palace of ______)
It made much use of interlaced designs colored in gold w/ delicate contours & graceful ______
The appeal was evident in the work of Antione ______(1684-1721) whose lyrical views of aristocratic life (refined, sensual, civilized, w/ guys & gals in elegant dress) reflected a world of upper-class ______& joy
The 17th & 18th centuries were the formative years of classical music & saw the rise of the opera & oratorio, the sonata, the concerto, the symphony & many of the techniques of the Baroque musical style which were perfected by ______& ______
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) who came from a family of musicians was an organist & music director of ______music at the Church of Saint Thomas in Leipzip in 1723
There Bach composed his Mass in (______) as a means to worship God
George Frederick Handel (1685-1759) was also born in Saxony in Germany who wrote for large public ______& was not averse to writing huge, unusual sounding pieces
He wrote more than 40 operas but is best known for his religious music (______)

A new musical period called the classical era (1750-1830) also emerged & produced Haydn & Mozart which caused the musical center to switch from Italy & Germany to the ______Empire
Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) spent most of his life as a musical director for the wealthy ______princes---he composed 104 symphonies as well as ______concerts (The Creation & The Seasons)
Wolfgang Amadeus ______(1756-1791) was a child prodigy who had his first concert at age 6 & wrote his first opera at age 12---(The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute & Don Giovanni---3 of the worlds greatest ______)
The development of the “______” was not completely new genre but grew out of the medieval romances & the ______of the 6th century
Samuel ______(1689-1761) wrote “Virtue Rewarded” which is a novel about a servant girls resistance to numerous ______attempts by her master
Henry ______(1707-1754) wrote “The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling” which is a novel about the numerous adventures of a young ______
The philosophes were responsible for creating a revolution in the writing of ______b/c their secular orientation caused them to eliminate the role of God in history & freed them to concentrate on ______themselves & search for casual relationships in the natural world

The High Culture Of The 18th Century

Historians & cultural “______” (study humanity) have grown accustomed to distinguishing b/t a civilization’s “______ culture” & its “______ culture”
High Culture is a set of cultural products, mainly in the arts, held in the highest esteem by a culture (educated & ______)
Popular Culture is a entirety of ideas, perspectives, ______, images & other phenomena that are within the mainstream of a given culture (passed down orally)
Especially noticeable in the 18th century was an explosion of both the reading public & ______which made it possible for authors to make ______from their works
1750 – ______titles issued yearly
1780 – ______titles issued yearly
______were an important aspect of the growth of publishing as Great Britain was the center for the new magazines (1700-1780 = 25-158 periodicals)
By the 18th century Europe was home to a large number of privately endowed secondary schools (the ______in Germany & the ______in France & Spain)
Theses schools tended to be elitist & designed to meet the needs of the children of the ______classes of society (math, science & modern languages)

Crime & Punishment