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GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES OF TRANSLATION
ИсламоваМухаббатМихтибаевна,ағаоқытушы
Узакова Рано, IV - курс студенті
Сырдария университеті, Жетісай қаласы
Тілдеркафедрасы
Translation is a very ancient kind of human activity. As soon as groups ofpeople with different languages were born in human history, bilingualsappeared and they helped to communicate between collectives of differentlanguages. With the development of the written language, written translatorsjoin oral ones. They translated different texts of official, religious andbusiness haracter. Translation had the main social function at first. Itmade possible inter-linguistic communication of people. The spreading of thewritten translation opened to people the wide access to cultural achievementsof other nations; it made possible interaction and inter-enrichment ofliterature and culture. The knowledge of foreign languages let to readoriginal books, but not everybody can earn at least one foreign language.
Grammatical categories of translation.
Category shift.A category is a specifically defined division in a system of classification. In linguistics, it is a specific grammatical defining property of a linguistic class or unit, such as number or gender in the noun, the pronoun and the adjective, and tense or voice in the verb . In other words, a grammatical category is a set of syntactic features that (1) express meanings from the same conceptual domain, (2) occur in contrast to each other and (3) are typically expressed in the same fashion. An important aspect of translation problems is linked to the existence or the nonexistence of grammatical categories in one of the languages. “To walk in the park is pleasant” and “a walk in the park is pleasant” are very similar expressions. But according to Jakobson, the change of grammatical category – the use of a name instead of a verb – has many consequences in the expressive sphere. A frequent problem for the translator from English is the use of simple past: it is almost impossible to understand if the verb has a perfective or an imperfective value, if the action is finished and definite or repeated and unfinished. By the way, it is difficult to decide what tense to use in the target language. Moreover, the possibility of the English language to use a “not very well defined past” is an expressive tool that other languages don’t have; this characteristic allows English authors to leave ambiguous what the grammatical category doesn’t imply . Therefore, if some grammatical category is absent in a given language, its meaning may be translated by lexical means, such as the use of the numerals. But, by doing so, it is more difficult to remain faithful to the original when translating into a language provided with a certain grammatical category from a language devoid of such a category.
Close translation:term that is used by some writers to indicate translation strategies encouraging exact correspondence between the linguistic units of hesource languageand those of thetarget language. Therefore, the aim of the close ranslation is not to convey the overall meaning of theprototext.
Importance of teaching grammar:grammar reflects culture of a person, culture of speech. We do not need to learn grammar as such in order to learn language. Grammar should be taught consistently as a means to improving mastery of the language not as an end itself. The learners need to learn how to make meanings within real context, and how to create longer units of the language than single sentences. Grammatical accuracy should be used to receive and produce interesting and purposeful meanings within the context of real life - like language use. The aim in teaching grammar should be to ensure the pupils to use grammar knowledge in community in auditing, speaking, reading and writing but not only to know how to form this or that grammar structure.
Common difficulties in English Grammar.
A.Fixed word order.
B.Inversion of subject and finite verb to indicate the question form.
C.Tense system.
D.Sequence of tenses.
E.The use of modal verbs.
F.Infinitive, participle and gerundial constructions.
G.The use of articles.
Grammatical explanation.
This method is used to provide deeper insight into language structure as students enlarge their experience in language. Advanced students need a more sophisticated treatment of grammatical rules. Grammar can be explained in detail using grammatical terminology and giving a mini-lecture on the subject. Explanation can be conducted as in English as in mother tongue
The Grammar Translation Method.
The traditional position starts from the assumption that the purpose of teaching is to ensure that learners acquire a prescribed body of knowledge and set of values. Both knowledge and values are taken to reflect a society’s selection of what it most wants to transmit to its future citizens and requires its future workforce to be able to do.An important characteristic of this traditional view is that it seeks to convey what is already known and, at some level, approved. The relationship between teacher and learner is determined thereby. The learner is seen as the person who does not yet have the required knowledge or values and the teacher as the person who has both and whose function it is to convey them to the learner.
From the nature of this relationship, a number of things follow: the systematic transmission of knowledge and values from teacher to learner needs to proceed smoothly. That requires well-behaved learners and a disciplined environment. Teaching and learning also benefit from carefully designed syllabuses and prescribed curriculum content. Furthermore, as what has to be learned can be set out in full, stage by stage, from the start of the educational process to its conclusion, it follows that what is taught can be regularly tested and that each stage of teaching and learning can best be seen as a preparation for the next. It also follows that, as individual learners learn.
Features of the Grammar-Translation Method :
1.classes are taught in the mother tongue with little active use of the target language;
2.much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words;
3.grammar provides the rules for putting words together;
4.reading of difficult texts is begun early;
5.Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammar analysis;often the only drill exercise is translation of disconnected sentences from the target language to the mother tongue; another drill exercise is substitution from one form to another, that requires thoughtless imitation of the model. This method is still popular with teachers as it requires few specialized skills on the part of the teacher. Tests of grammar rules and of translation are easy to construct and can be objectively scored.
The translation process unavoidably implies shifts in cohesion and coherence, especially if it is considered as an act of communication, where the process and the product of the communicative act necessarily relate to at least the linguistic, discoursal and social systems holding for the two languages and cultures involved. Blum-Kulka makes a distinction betweenreader-focusedandtext-focusedshifts in coherence. As far as the first category is concerned, according to Fillmore (1981), a sort of envisionment of the text occurs in the reader’s mind during the reading process; this envisionment, of course, can vary with individual readers and with different types of audiences. When it comes to translation, these shifts are essentially unavoidable, as different cultural backgrounds and reference networks are involved.Text-basedshifts in coherence, instead, often occur as a result of particular choices made by a specific translator, who failed to realize the functions of a particular linguistic system, or a particular form plays in conveying indirect meanings in a given text, thus affecting the text’s meaning potential. As to shifts in cohesion, shifts in types of cohesive markers in translation can basically produce in the metatext shifts in levels of explicitness and shifts in text meaning. But, as stated before, coherence is not a well-defined concept, as there are many opinions from different important scholars. Let us mention some of them: Van Dijk interprets coherence from the perspective of semantics. He believes that "coherence is a semantic property of discourse, based on the interpretation of each individual sentence relative to the interpretation of other sentences "(1973). Halliday's full attention is given to those cohesive devices such as reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. Widdowson (1978) believes it is a pragmatic concept and sees it as the relationship between illocutionary acts. According to Beaugrande (1981), coherence is represented by the procedures which ensure conceptual connectivity, including (1) logical relations, (2) organization of events, objects and situations, (3) continuity in human experience. It concerns "the way in which the components of the textual world which underlie the surface text are mutually accessible and relevant". In Brown and Yule's opinion it is the result of the interaction of the text and the receiver, provided by readers' processing of the text. But, once seen the unhomogeneous definitions given, one could dare say that maybe it would be better considering coherence, from a broader point of view, as an essential property of texts involving at the same time the syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and stylistic level . As Neubert said: “Text-based translation is to establish in the target text a coherence functionally parallel to that of the source text". “The maintenance of coherence should be established as a criterion for adequate translation".