Writing Clearly: Grammar for Editing, 3E
by Janet Lane and Ellen Lange
Glossary of Grammatical Terms
Academic Word List (AWL)
A list of 570 words selected because they are commonly used in texts in a variety of academic fields. The list was developed at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand, and is divided into ten sublists ranked in order of frequency of use.
Examples of words from Sublist 1: available, financial, individual, principle, process, sector, specific
Active voice
A sentence in which the subject of the sentence is performing the action.
Albert crossed the room after he finished talking to his friend.
Adjective
A word that adds information to a noun.
My parents gave me a new laptop computer for graduation.
The house is dark; the owners must not be at home.
Adjectiveclause
A dependent (or subordinate) clause, also called arelative clause,that modifies a noun. It begins with a relative pronoun (that, which, who, whom, whose), or with a relative adverb (where, why, or when) and provides specific information about the noun.
The cabin in which we stayed last summer was made of logs.
Abraham Lincoln, who was president of the United States during the Civil War, was nicknamed Honest Abe.
Adverb
A word that modifies (adds information to) a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a whole sentence.
Maurice slept soundly after a long day at work.
Please put the box there.
Perhaps the test will be canceled tomorrow.
Until recently, one had to cross the bridge very carefully.
Adverbialclause
A dependent (or subordinate) clause that is connectedto an independent clause by a subordinating conjunction such as because, although, or while.
While Gregorio was vacationing in Paris, he visited a number of art museums.
Although farmers always hope for a good crop, sometimes the weather works against them.
Agent
The performer of the action in a passive sentence. It may be preceded by the preposition by or may just be implied.
The polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin.
The flyer advertising the concert was posted on every bulletin board. (by someone, but the agent is not important)
Article
A determiner (a, an, the, or the zero article)thatclassifies or identifies a noun.
The trip was canceled because of (zero article) fog; a new trip will be announced.
Auxiliary verb
A helping verb (or verbs) that comes before the main verb in a verb phrase and serves as an indicator of tense, mood, or voice. Auxiliary verbs include do, be, have, and the modal auxiliaries (such as can, would, or should).
Now that my car has been repaired, the clutch does not squeak.
Base form
The infinitive form of a verb without to.
Please let me help you.
The train will leave the station in five minutes.
Clause
A group of words that has at least a subject and a verb and is either independent (can stand alone) or dependent (cannot stand alone).
After the class ended (dependent clause), everyone went out for coffee (independent clause).
Collective noun
A noun that refers to a group of people, animals, or things that is treated as one unit.
The team won the tournament.
After lunch, the committee will continue the meeting.
A jury decides criminal cases.
Collocation
A combination of two or more words that commonly occur together.
Examples: feel comfortable; blond hair; strongly support; completely satisfied; take action; go abroad; keep calm
Comma splice
A comma that has been incorrectly used to connect two independent clauses.
Incorrect: A big city offers cultural events, a small town is usually safer.
Revised: A big city offers cultural events; a small town is usually safer.
Revised: A big city offers cultural events, but a small town is usually safer.
Revised: Although a big city offers cultural events, a small town is usually safer.
Common noun
A noun that does not refer to a specific person, place, or thing.
For breakfast, Carlos likes to drink juice and eat a bowl of cereal.
Comparativeform
The form of an adjective or adverb that is used to showthe similarity or difference between two things.
This test is easier than I thought it would be.
Working with a group is more satisfying than working alone.
Yoshi writes more legibly than Akira.
Complement
A word or phrase that follows a linking verb, such as be, feel, seem, or look, and which completes the meaning of the subject either by renaming it or describing it. Nouns and adjectives used as subject complements are also called predicate nouns and predicate adjectives.
Pine trees are conifers.
Edna looks pale.
Compound sentence
A sentence made up of at least two independent clauses which are connected by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon.
Recycling is important (independent clause), so the city encourages it by providing free weekly pick-ups (independent clause).
Complexsentence
A sentence made up of at least one independent clauseand one dependent clause. It is connected to the independent clause with a subordinating conjunction.
Fatima returned the dress to the store (independent clause) because it did not fit her properly (dependent clause).
Conjunction
A word used to show a relationship between words, phrases, and clauses. Conjunctions are divided into different types according to their function: coordinating, subordinating, and correlative conjunctions; and conjunctive adverbs.
The teacher asked the students to listen carefully and to take notes.
Because it was raining so hard, we took the bus home.
Whether it is cold or warm, we will still go swimming.
The soup was cold; furthermore, it was tasteless.
Connecting words
A word or words that are used to connect words,phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs. Connecting words include conjunctions and transitional words and phrases.
My dress is wrinkled; however, I do not have time to iron it.
California has a variety of nice tourist attractions. For example, Yosemite, Lassen Volcanic, and Death Valley National Parks are all in this state.
Coordinating conjunction
A connecting word, such as for, and, but,thatjoins together words, phrases and independent clauses.
Paul and Matt are roommates.
We ate bread, cheese, and fruit for lunch.
This supermarket has good prices, but that small store has better meat.
Correlative conjunctions
Two connecting words that are used together, such as either . . . or, not only
. . . but also, or both . . . and.
We have to either buy a new car or fix the old one.
Countablenoun
A noun that can be counted and has both a singularand plural form.
My friend Joanna has two dogs and a cat.
Danglingmodifier
A word or group of words that does not modify the proper word in a sentence.
Incorrect: Unprepared and unaware, the situation was confusing.
Revised: Unprepared and unaware, Michelle found the situation confusing.
Definite article
The word the, which when modifying a noun,indicates that the noun is being specifically identified.
The radio in my car needs repair.
Demonstrativeadjective
The words this, that, these, and those when they areplaced before nouns.
This process is called photosynthesis.
Demonstrativepronoun
The words this, that, these, and those when used alonein a subject or object position in a sentence.
I will look through these papers, while you look through those.
(These in these papers is a demonstrative adjective.)
Dependent clause
A clause, sometimes called a subordinate clause, thatcannot stand alone but must work together with an independent clause to complete its meaning and form a complete sentence.
Because the population of the town has grown, a number of new houses are being built.
Determiner
A noun marker that precedes the noun and includes the following types of words: articles (a, an, the), demonstratives (this, that, these, those), possessive adjectives and nouns (her, my, Susan’s), quantity words (some, many, much) and numbers(one, two, fourteen).
My opinion on the matter has not changed.
Direct object
A noun, noun phrase, or pronoun that follows a verb and receives the action of the verb.
John received a promotion.
Faultypredication
The subject and the predicate do not work together ina sentence.
Incorrect: The reason for my tardiness is because my car would not start.
Revised: The reason for my tardiness is that my car would not start.
Incorrect: The temperature of water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit.
Revised: Water freezes at a temperature of 32 degrees Fahrenheit.
Fragment
A sentence-boundary problem in which a group of words do not make up a complete sentence.
Incorrect: Because the weather was beautiful over the weekend.
Revised: Because the weather was beautiful over the weekend, we went for a bike ride.
Incorrect: Three people standing around the corner.
Revised: I noticed three people standing around the corner.
Gerund
A verb with an -ing ending that functions as a noun in a sentence.
Running is good exercise.
My nephew enjoys running.
She is undecided about running for office.
Global error
One of the most serious errors in writing. Global errors generally affect more than one clause and are likely to affect the reader’s ability to comprehend a text. Some examples include verb tense, verb form, and sentence structure errors.
Incorrect: When we move to a new environment is sometimes scary. (sentence structure error)
Revised: Moving to a new environment is sometimes scary.
Incorrect: Simon studied Spanish since he was in high school. (verb- tense error)
Revised: Simon has studied Spanish since he was in high school.
Idiomaticlanguage
Language written or spoken correctly and in such away that sounds natural to a native speaker of English.
Incorrect: I have had many opportunities to enlarge my sight.
Revised: I have had many opportunities to broaden my point of view.
Indefinitearticle
The words a and an, whichmodify a nounand indicate that the noun is not being specifically identified but rather that it belongs to a class or group.
(Note: Indefinite articles can be used only with countable nouns in English.)
Many students own and use a bicycle.
I just read an interesting book.
Independent clause
A group of words that consists of at least a subject (sometimes implied) and a verb and which can stand alone as a sentence.
The population of the city has increased to 55,000 residents.
Turn left at the stop sign.
Indirectquestion
A question that isembedded in a statement in the form of a dependent clause.
Mario is not sure where he left his keys.
Indirectobject
A noun, noun phrase, or a pronoun that follows a verband that identifies to whom or what or for whom a transitive verb’s action is being performed.
I gave my keys to John.
I gave John my keys.
Infinitive
The form of a verb that consists of to + base form.
The building is starting to age.
Irregular verb
A verb that does not form the past tense or past participle by adding -ed.
The choir sang all evening.
We have thought about your request and have made a decision.
Irregularplural
A noun that does not form the plural byadding -s or -es.
The children saw several fish in the stream.
The data show an increase in demand for the new product.
Intransitive verb
A verb that cannot take a direct object.
A rainbow suddenly appeared.
Local error
One of the less serious errors in writing. Local errors generally affect only one clause and, although they are distracting, do not usually impede the reader’s ability to comprehend a text. Some examples are subject-verb agreement, article, and preposition errors.
Incorrect: I live close to where I work, but my husband commute 40 miles. (subject-verb agreement error)
Revised: I live close to where I work, but my husband commutes 40 miles.
Incorrect: Do you have extra key for the lock? (article error)
Revised: Do you have an extra key for the lock?
Main verb
A word that indicates the action or state of being in a sentence.
The rain started at 2 P.M.
It has been raining since 2 P.M.
The train was late.
The instructor returned our graded homework.
Modifier
A word that accompanies another part of speech and describes the other part of speech in some way. For example, adjectives and determiners are modifiers of nouns; adverbs are modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
We used red paint on the barn.
The hikers walked cautiously along the steep trail.
Nonidiomatic language
A phrase or sentence that is understandable but is not phrased the way a native or fluent speaker would write or say it.
Incorrect: According to Figure 1, India stands at the first position in the number of international students at U.S. colleges.
Revised: According to Figure 1, India ranks first in the number of international students at U.S. colleges.
Noun
A word that refers to a person, place, thing, or idea. It can function as a subject or object in a sentence.
Friendship is golden.
Mary loves all of your plants.
The Smithsonian is in Washington, D.C.
Noun clause
A dependent (or subordinate) clause that takes a noun position in a sentence. The clause can function as a subject or object.
The fact that you exercise regularly has contributed to your good health.
The professor very much likes what you wrote.
Our instructor likes to talk about where he traveled last summer.
Noun phrase
A noun and any adjectives and/or determiners that modify it.
The white house is for sale.
Parallel structure
The use of structures that are grammatically the same.
My grandfather walks his dogs in the morning and in the evening. (prepositional phrases)
All participants should bring a tape recorder, a pencil, and a pad of paper. (nouns)
Part of speech
Describes how a word functions in a sentence, such as a noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, or adverb.
Christopher (noun) ate (verb) slowly (adverb).
Passive voice
A sentence in which the subject of the verb is receiving the action.
The toxic chemicals were dumped at a nearby waste site.
Past participle
Formed by adding -ed to the base form of the verb except in the case of irregular verbs. It is used as an adjective, in verb phrases, and as part of the passive voice.
The frightened boy hid behind his mother.
Many elementary schools have switched to a year-round calendar.
The articles you requested have been sent.
Perfect (or past)infinitive
The past form of the infinitive, formed by using[to + have + past participle] for the active voice and [to + have + been + past participle] for the passive voice.
She was supposed to have completed the project.
The witness claimed to have been forced to give testimony.
Phrasal verb
A verb followed by an adverb or preposition (often called a particle). These words, when added to the verb, give the verb an idiomatic meaning. Such verbs are also known as two-word or three-word verbs.
The instructor is passing out the test. (distributing)
Martha read up on the museums in Washington, D. C. before her trip. (sought information about)
Tom and his research advisor get along well. (have a friendly relationship)
Plural noun
The form of a noun that indicates more than one.
We will need two more weeks of sunshine for the roses to bloom.
The neighborhood park was full of children playing soccer.
Possessive noun or pronoun
A noun or pronoun that shows possession orownership.
Tanya’s mother wants her to go to college.
Ice cream is his favorite dessert.
That car is ours.
Predicate
The part of the sentence that comes after the subject.
The student felt relieved afterthe exam.
Preposition
A word used to link nouns or pronouns grammatically to other words.
The post office is located on the corner of Main and First Streets.
Prepositional phrase
A preposition and its object and modifiers.
In the next block, you will find an auto repair shop.
Presentparticiple
Formed by adding -ing to the base form of the verb.It functions as an adjective or as a main verb in a verb phrase.
The dog ran down the street barking at cars.
Alicia is reading a novel that she cannot bear to put down.
Pronoun
A word that takes the place of a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence. The noun that a pronoun refers to is called its antecedent.
We love your new car. It is quite sporty.
Pronoun reference and agreement
The way a pronoun refers to another noun, called its antecedent. A pronoun must agree with itsantecedent in number; that is, a singular antecedent should have a singular pronoun, and a plural antecedent should have a plural pronoun. Also, a pronoun should always refer clearly to its antecedent.
Correct:The president’s late arrival at the meeting was not his fault.
Correct: Employees should turn in their time sheets immediately if they want to be paid by the first of the month.
Incorrect: David told John that he had passed the exam.
Revised: David passed the exam and told John about his good grade.
Incorrect: My favorite high school teacher was a biologist, a fact that led me to major in it.
Revised: My favorite high school teacher was a biologist, a fact that led me to major in the field of biology.
Proper noun
A noun that refers to a specific person, place, or thing, such as a religion, holiday, language, nationality, or a time period. A proper noun always begins with a capital letter (upper case) in English.
Tanya lives in Orlando, Florida.
The Grand Canyon is one of the most popular national parks in the United States.
To qualify for this job, applicants need to know a little Spanish.
Thanksgiving is in November in the United States.
Regular verb
A verb that forms the past tense and the past participle by adding -ed.
We frequently walked to work when we lived in the downtown area.
Maggie has lived in Miami for ten years.
Relative adverb
One of a group of pronouns—including where, when, and why—that connect a relative (or adjective) clause to the item it modifies.