Classical Model

“Classical rhetoricians outlined a five-part structure for an oratory, or speech, that writers still use today.”

  • Introduction (exordium): speaker announces the subject and purpose, and appeals to ethos in order to establish credibility. The introduction is the part in the essay that grabs the reader’s attention and interest.
  • Narration (narratio): the factual and background information part of the essay; establishes why a subject or problem needs to be addressed. It precedes the confirmation, or laying out of evidence to support claims made in the argument. This may also include appealing to pathos to evoke an emotional response about the important issue.
  • Confirmation (confirmatio): this part of an essay provides the development of proof through evidence that supports the claims made by the speaker. It is a major part of the essay because it contains the most specific and concrete details in the text.
  • Refutation (refutatio): addresses the counterargument which is considered to be a bridge between the writer’s proof and conclusion. It appeals largely to logos, or logical ideas.
  • Conclusion (peroratio): brings the essay to a satisfying close. It also reminds the reader of the ethos established earlier in the paper. Basically, it sums up all the writer’s ideas and answers the question or prompt. Remember, the last words are the most lasting!

Writing Introductions for Advanced Placement English Language Essays

An effective introduction should make the purpose of the essay clear.

Traditional introductions should accomplish the following three objectives:

  1. Engage the audience.
  2. Establish the topic, or the reason for writing.
  3. Present a clear, direct thesis statement.

Ideally, the opening lines engage (or interest) the reader. However, dramatic, creative, and/or witty openings don’t always immediately pop into the writer’s mind. If it comes, it comes. If it doesn’t, move on. Ordinary introductions to papers might still score an 8 or 9. BUT, more engaging openings typify most high-scoring papers.

The MOST IMPORTANT THING: In a rhetorical analysis: The writer demonstrates a clear understanding of the author’s purpose. In a persuasive argument: The writer presents a clear thesis.

Writing Body Paragraphs for Advanced Placement English Language

Persuasive Argument and Synthesis Essays

Concrete Illustrations of Abstract Ideas. Every paragraph should present concrete examples. Every single one. It is simply a must. Ideas that exist only in the mind are rarely convincing because your audience cannot see how they apply in the real world.

How and Why. The writers spend time explaining how and why their ideas are correct. You cannot simply assume that the reader will agree with you. Talk to your audience. Show the why they should think as you do. Explain your reasoning. Engage your audience.

Fully Developed Points. Examples and explanations take time. A detailed example should run 3-4 sentences. Commentary and explanation should be at least 2-5 sentences. Don’t state that “Gandhi faced obstacles,” show them!

To put it simply…

CLAIM.

EVIDENCE.

EXPLANATION.

Make a Claim.

Present your Evidence.

Provide an Explanation.

Remember: In argument, do not simply given an opinion. Always explain WHY your opinion is the correct one. The more time spent explaining your thought process, the better.

Writing Conclusions for Advanced Placement English Language Essays

An effective conclusion should make both the purpose and thesis of the essay clear.

A good conclusion should be the writer’s final appeal. In a persuasive argument, the writer should end with a final rhetorical thrust, ending with a convincing idea designed to draw the reader to his side.

In a rhetorical analysis, the writer should be with a holistic assessment of the author’s impact on his or her audience (viz., what does the author want his or her audience to think or feel upon finishing the work?).

Something to avoid in either case: Summarize.

Always end with something new (that is, something not said before). You can and should return to former ideas, but present them from a different angle. Perhaps show the combined effect of the writer’s ideas in a rhetorical analysis. Or, in a persuasive argument, end with a convincing idea that follows from your previous points.

It doesn’t matter what you do, so long as the paper ends on an emotional upswing in which your ideas are crystal clear and meaningful.

If you can…..

Try the following techniques at the end:

  1. Dramatic sentences (e.g. one-word sentences or sentence fragments)
  2. Parallel sentences or parallel elements
  3. Rhetorical questions (i.e., questions with an obvious answer use to persuade the audience.
  4. A new specific illustration that captures a key idea.
  5. Anaphora (or any type of intentional repetition). Anaphora is beginning a series of sentences with the exact same words (e.g., “I have a dream….”)

The point: End with style and flair, if possible. Most of these techniques work best with persuasive arguments. Keep in mind that this is the English Language and Composition exam. Showing your skill at using advanced composition techniques will raise your score.