Chapter 2 Historical and Contemporary Views
Trephining - in ancient time, a hole is cut in the skull to allow evil spirits to escape.
Edwin Smith Papyrus – 16th century BC, describes brain as “seat of mental processes”
Hippocrates – abnormal behavior is due to “natural causes,” treat with tranquillity, abstinence,
removal from family? He set forth the theory of “four bodily humors” that leads to current
day thinking about personality and abnormality. He wasn’t always right, hysteria was found
only in females because it resulted from a “wandering uterus” pining for a child. The cure
was marriage and childbearing.
Insanity – concept was introduced by Plato, insanity is a “legal term” not a psychological or
psychiatric team
Galen – Greek physician studied anatomy and divided causes into physical and mental
Contrariis-Contrarius (opposite by opposite) – Roman notion of using opposing forces to cure
mental problems.
Middle ages – after the fall on Rome superstition took over in Europe, Greek/Roman
knowledge survived in the Middle East, with “Avicenna” (Prince of Physicians)
Tarantism (mass madness) – during middle ages, people in large groups would think they were
bitten by the tarantula and dance about wildly in the streets (rave?). Similar to St. Vitus’s
dance
Lycanthropy – the belief that one has become a werewolf
“Black Death” (Bubonic Plague) – may have contributed to these phenomena
Exorcism – during middle ages exorcism focused on “insulting Satan’s pride”
Witchcraft - the mentally ill were only occasionally accused of being witches
Paracelsus - Swiss physician, argued against superstition. He did believe in
“animal magnetism” and “lunar” influence on human behavior
Asylums – warehouses for the mentally ill, they were mistreated and put on display
St. Mary’s of Bethlehem - (a converted monastery ) one of the first and worst asylums, hence,
the word “Bedlam”
Humane treatment – began with Phillipe Pinel in France
William Tuke - opened York Retreat in England
Benjamin Rush – founder of American psychiatry, advocated humane treatment, but had some
poor ideas like the “tranquilizing chair”
Moral Management Movement – grew during late 18th and early 19th centuries, focused on
individual, social, and occupational needs and was quite successful Died out because of 1.
prejudice against immigrants, 2. advances in biomedical science, and 3. the rise of the
Mental Hygiene Movement
Dorothea Dix – campaigned for humane treatment in US during 1800s
Mental Hygiene Movement – promoted by Dix, focused on basic physical needs , may have
contributed to the demise of moral management
Alienist - name for a psychiatrist during the 19th century because they treated those
who had been “alientaed from society.
Neurasthenia - 19th century term for a general psychological breakdown due to stress
using up one’s vital “nerve force.”
Clifford Beers – wrote an influential book “A Mind That Found Itself” recounting his
mistreatment as a mental patient
Deinstitutionalization - well intentioned, but not entirely successful, effort to get institutionalized
patients back into society during the second half of the 20th century.
Reserpine - the active ingredient from the root of the “Rauwalfia Serpentina” plant was the first
“antipsychotic” medication and liekly contributed to deinstitutionalization.
Biological breakthrough – a link between syphilis and general paresis was discovered by
Richard von Kraft-Ebbing, supporting the idea that mental disorder was biologically based
Emil Kraepelin – observed that groups of symptoms tended to co-occur. He developed a
classification system which grew into the DSM
Psychoanalytic approach – actually has its roots in hypnosis and hysteria
Mesmerism – Franz Anton Mesmer (1700s) treated individuals with hypnosis “animal
magnetism.” In a way, it was a forerunner of psychoanalysis.
Nancy School – Liebault and Bernheim said hypnosis and hysteria were both caused by
“suggestion” (hysteria was “self-hypnosis”) so hypnotism could be used to treat hysteria
Jean Charcot – disagreed with the Nancy School idea. He said brain or nerve damage was
the cause of mental disorder, but eventually, the Nancy view prevailed.
Catharsis – although Freud is credited with discovering the “cathartic” power of
talking, equal credit should probably go to Josef Breuer
Lightner Witmer – established the first American psychological clinic.
William Healy – opened the Chicago Juvenile Psychopathic Institute, he believed delinquency
was due to urbanization. He, like John B. Watson, focused on “social and environmental
causes.”
John B. Watson – applied the principles of classical conditioning to human mental disorder
B.F. Skinner – Like Watson, he was a true “Behaviorist,” but he (building upon the work of E. L.
Thorndike) was interested in the role of “Operant (instrumental) conditioning” in the
development of mental disorder.