Agreement (Ag) the Grammatical Number of the Verb Must Be the Same As That of the Corresponding

Common Errors & How To Avoid Them

Hugo van den Berg

MOAC and Systems Biology Doctoral Training Centres

Warwick University

2010

I. Composition

“Grammar don’t matter, do it?”The following is a list of elements of style, grammar and spelling, to which you must pay attention whenever you write something to hand in. You may object that this is unfair: that all that matters is the quality of your scientific insight, knowledge, and achievements, not your grasp of grammar or the elegance of your writing. Indeed, you may be more cynical and suggest that success in science does not even depend primarily on the quality of your work. Still, if you wish your written work to have lasting value and appeal to people in future generations whom you cannot influence by other means, you will have to learn to write with clarity. Moreover, it is easy to grossly overestimate how well you understand a given topic. Attempting to write with clarity is a useful reality check. You may object that language is just a set of conventions. True, and you must adhere to these conventions for the same reasons you observe the Highway Code. Remember that written text is a poor medium, compared to conversation. When speaking to a person, he or she can indicate that you need to explain something in more detail (or, on the contrary, that they know all about it so you can cut to the chase). But when you are writing you lack all these clues, and the elements of style that make up good prose constitute one way of making up for these shortcomings.

An asterisk (*) indicates that an incorrect sentence or clause follows. Error codes used when marking students’ work are indicated in bold face.

Agreement (Ag) The grammatical number of the verb must be the same as that of the corresponding noun:

* The pH of the P-phase and the N-phase were measured.

The pH of the P-phase and the N-phase was measured.

This is a typical example where the plurality of the intervening clause causes the writer to forget that it is the pH that was measured. Note that statistics, dynamics, genetics, proteomics, genomics are all singular. Data is actually the plural of datum, but is nowadays treated by almost all speakers as a singular mass term (which raises the question of what to call a single data item: a data point? an observation? say datum and you sound like the professor who ordered a martinus).

one bacteriumtwo or more bacteria

one criteriontwo or more criteria

one phenomenontwo or more phenomena

one gangliontwo or more ganglia

Bacteria (the plural) might refer to several bacterial cells, or two or several bacterial species. The locution they for a singular person looks and sounds much better than he or she or (s)he, but in written text it is jarring because it looks too much like an agreement error and, moreover, many still view singular they as a colloquialism (q.v.).

Apostrophe (Apo) The apostrophe indicates relations of possession:

the enzyme’s = of the enzyme

the enzymes = more than one enzyme

the enzymes’ = of more than one enzyme

The rule is no different for acronyms and abbreviations:

the RNA’s = of the RNA

the RNAs = more than one RNA

the RNAs’ = of more than one RNA

although some writers feel the plural of an acronym needs an apostrophe, too. Names ending in -s follow the same rules (Bridget Jones’s Diary, the Joneses’ new car), with the exception of time-honoured luminaries (Jesus’ teachings). The rule is different for its, which like the pronouns theirs and hers is a possessive without an apostrophe; it’s means it is or it has, but remember that you should not use contractions in academic writing. Irregular plural possessives are formed thus: children’s, people’s. Thus, men’s clothing is men’s wear, even though retail signage invariably reads *menswear.

Bastardized English (BE) Foreign students should take care to note that not everything they have come to believe is English actually is English. They are kindly requested not to refer to a data projector as a beamer, the latter being a car manufactured by BMW. They should avoid non-idiomatic constructions such as

*This is how it looks like.

*We now have the possibility to obtain an asymptotic result.

The first of these must be the most common example of non-idiomatic English uttered in seminars; the second sounds like something a Ukrainian gangster might say (the grammar, not the maths). Such things can and do change, but this is best left to native speakers. German students should refrain from referring to their mobile phones as handies (or, even worse, Handy’s). Asians should take care to avoid incorrect locutions with about:

* Discuss about…* Mention about…*Analyse about…*A problem about…

Already and yet require a perfect past tense:

*The experiment was done already by Ed et al.

Do not use since where for is correct, as in:

*The protocol, due to Al et al., has been in use since ten years.

In each of the following pairs of sentences, the two juxtaposed sentences mean different things:

I like to express my gratitude.I would like to express my gratitude.

I am interesting.I am interested.

The ones on the left express distinctly oddball sentiments.

Colloquialisms (Coll) Strive to write as you speak (indeed, you will avoid most syntactical errors if you simply avoid writing things you would never say) but remember that written text lacks some of the advantages of interpersonal contact. In particular, written text can look odd, jejune, or strained when it is too informal:

*This leaves the RNA polymerase molecule in a bit of a bind.

*The law of large numbers is da bomb.

*Hopefully the octopus makes another attempt to copulate.

*Anaerobic bacteria are ideally suited to this sort of thing.

The first example may well be perfectly acceptable ten years from now, whereas the second example will be, like, so last decennium. While hopefully could be defended as an elliptic idiom, the trouble is that the third sentence can be read as imputing hope to octopi, which is probably not what is meant (although the sentence would be acceptable as part of a wildlife video narration). In a slightly informal expository text, an expression such as this sort of thing might not be out of place. Overused filler words (very, really, definitely, fairly, quite, nice) should be avoided, unless of course you really really mean it (to ban all such words outright would be pedantic; nonetheless, be careful). Mentally substitute the word damned for very whenever you want to write the latter and decide whether you really do feel that strongly about it.

*Separation of variables is a very important technique.

Separation of variables is a technique that often proves useful in practice.

Here, the need to eliminate very prompted a more precise and informative rephrasing. One reason why these words are overused in conversation, and look so sloppy in writing, is that each of them can mean many different things. If you are tempted to use such a word, try to think of a synonym with a less wide meaning. For instance, instead of really consider truly, genuinely, considerably; instead of very consider extremely, intensely, utmost, or, better yet, add a phrase that explains the very and renders it superfluous. Avoid dropping successfully in sentences reporting even the slightest of accomplishments.

Dangling elements (Dang) A dangler is a participle or gerund that is not linked to a corresponding noun:

*Considering the affinity, the mutant enzyme had a lower Km.

*Using these definitions, the key equation follows.

*Having spoken at various conferences, Diplodocus was a giant herbivore.

*When studying spiders, salticids are not easily mistaken for something else.

The -ing forms that start these sentences express an action not possible for the subjects of these sentences (enzyme, equation, Diplodocus, salticids, although intriguingly salticids do seem to be keen observers of fellow arachnids). While danglers could be defended as idiomatic elliptical constructions, they should be avoided in view of the comical effect they can have. Some students, vaguely remembering that -ing forms at the beginning of a sentence are associated with some sort of trouble, will seek the safety of the following construction:

*In terms of affinity, the mutant enzyme had a lower Km.

Whereas this is not strictly wrong, such clunky use of in terms of does not make for attractive prose and is symptomatic of lazy writing.

Green squiggles The built-in grammar checker that puts green squiggles underneath some bits of your prose is usually right, but not always.

Heterogeneous co-ordination (Het) Nouns that are syntactically co-ordinate should belong to the same category of meaning:

*The Calvin cycle is more costly than heterotrophy.

*Genomics includes alternative splicing.

*Multiple signaling pathways control homeostasis.

Heterotrophy, as a mode of existence, should be compared to autotrophy (a key component of which is the biochemical pathway of the Calvin cycle).

Irrelevant material (Irr) Your essay, assignment write-up, or research report is there to get a point across (or a cluster of related points). Anything that detracts from this goal should not be there. Material that interrupts the flow of the text too much but should be there to serve the needs of some readers (long tables, detailed proofs) should be delegated to appendices. Above all, do not succumb to the feeling that you need to include material merely to showcase your knowledge or understanding (some lecturers do play “gotcha” but if this happens you can console yourself with the knowledge that they are poor teachers, and that you will do better when you become one).

Mixed construction (Mix) The construction of the sentence should not change in mid-stream:

*Meiosis is when the diploid genome becomes haploid.

Such errors occur very frequently and can easily be prevented simply by listening to what you have written.

Colon, semi-colon, comma, full stop (Punc) The colon is the “double dot” and is used when the following material elaborates the implications of the initial statement:

Substance X is a non-competitive inhibitor: it changes Vmax but not Km.

The semi-colon is the “dot-comma” and separates statements that are complementary and parallel. When in doubt, use a full stop (unless all your sentences end up being less than 10 words long, which will make you sound like a robot). The subject of your sentence does not end with a comma, even when it is a long subject complement clause:

*Integrative homeostatic dynamics models, have been used more recently.

If you are afraid the sentence becomes too difficult to parse without the comma, you should rephrase it. A comma is nowadays more and more used where one would traditionally expect a semi-colon or a full stop:

*Microarrays chart gene expression patterns, two systems are available.

This sounds as if the writer does not properly understand the logical connection between the two clauses. The comma should not be regarded as a one-stop shop for connecting any old pair of related thoughts:

*The mutant ligand is ineffective, it is unable bind the receptor.

Instead, use a full stop or an appropriate co-ordinating conjunction:

The mutant ligand is ineffective, because it is unable to bind the receptor.

Note that you could not use therefore instead of because in this last sentence. To develop a feeling where commas should go, read your sentences out loud and pause where you have written commas. You will hear superfluous commas as unnatural pauses. From this discussion you may get the impression that a full stop is your best bet when in doubt; this is not too bad as a general rule of thumb, as long as you remember that each sentence should be complete, with main verb and predicate, and that two many short sentences following upon one another result in a staccato “machine gun” effect.

A subordinate clause which you would read out in a lower voice should be flanked on both sides by commas:

The Van der Waals forces, named after one of the many brilliant Dutch physicists, play a key role in intramolecular interactions.

*We will explain with the aid of examples, the advantages of differential equations.

The last sentence requires either another comma (before with) or that the one that follows examples be left out. The word however has two meanings. In the meaning “be this as it may” (or simply “but”), however should be flanked by commas or, if it appears at the beginning of a sentence, it should be followed by a comma:

However, the second experiment showed an unexpected result.

The microarray analysis, however, did not confirm our hypothesis.

When however has its other meaning of “regardless of” it is not followed by a comma:

The neurone did not hyperpolarize, however much ATP was added.

Full stops (periods) end sentences. Having a full stop where one should have a semi-colon is usually admissible, but a semi-colon for a full stop may look pretentious. Full stops also end abbreviations, but not those that end in the last letter of the unabbreviated word:

doctor: Drdoctors: Drs

mister: Mrmisters: Messrs

A selection of Latin abbreviations that occur regularly in scientific writing:

cf. = compare (confer) It does not mean “see”.

c.q. = in which case (casu quo) It does not mean “or”.

c.s. = and fellows (cum suis)

et al. = and others (et alia) No period follows et which is a complete word.

etc. = and so on (et cetera) When speaking, avoid saying “egg seterah”.

e.g. = for example (exempli gratia)

i.e. = that is (id est) When speaking, try to say “that is” and not “Aye ee”.

q.v. = which one should look up (quod vide)

s.l. = in the broad sense (sensu lato)

s.s. = strictly speaking, in the narrow sense (sensu stricto)

viz. = namely (videlicet)

The abbreviation c.s. is to refer to a usually prominent person together with the people he or she works with or who follow him or her. The abbreviation et al. is now spelled et al without the full stop by many scientific journals. Sensu lato and sensu stricto are usually written out in full.

It is lazy writing to put etc. at the end of a list or enumeration when you have a vague feeling you may have forgotten one or more similar items (and are afraid, perhaps, that the reader will take you to task for it). Only use etc. if the reader can easily supply more examples:

Specialized training is required to treat zoo animals such as monkeys, elephants, crocodiles, tigers etc.

*The blood transports oxygen, nutrients, enzymes etc.

In the second sentence, there certainly are other blood components that have been left out, but they do not belong to a single category and the list is therefore not readily extendable. You can always use including or some phrase to similar effect to indicate the fact that the enumeration is not complete, nor meant to be. (Another legitimate use of etc. is to abbreviate a formula such as a list of honorifics, but you are unlikely to find yourself needing this in scientific writing.) In the type-setting language LaTeX, input

i.\ e.\or: i.e.\ et al.\

to obtain proper spacing following the full stop (omit the second backslash if the abbreviation actually ends the sentence, and note in passing that a single full stop will do the job of ending both abbreviation and sentence). Microsoft Word is hopeless at this sort of thing, so it is better to write i.e. than i. e. Also, you are not required to italicize these abbreviations, although you should feel free to do so.

Quotations & reference (Quo) Always attribute facts and findings to the source that provided them, both to pay tribute to the original contribution and to assign responsibility. (Of course, your source is in no way responsible for any misinterpretations on your part.) By all means use wikipedia, but always follow up references; if the wikipedia page does not provide them, find your own. Wikipedia cannot be trusted; its editing process means that pages often do not even concord with their own references! Fragments of text that you lift from your sources should be put between quotation marks and be attributed. If you fail to do this you are plagiarizing. Note that opening quotes are “sixes” and closing quotes are “nines”. In the last sentence the nines precede the full stop, whereas standard practice reverses this order; you should feel free to follow either convention. In scientific prose the need seldom arises to quote whole paragraphs (this is different for scholarly work). If you quote sentence fragments, make sure they are syntactically contiguous with the surrounding text. Single sixes and nines can be employed to distinguish the mention of a word from its use:

‘Boston’ has six letters, whereas Boston has six million inhabitants.

Alternatively, you can put the mentioned words in italics (Boston has six letters). Arguing from a strictly logical point of view, you would expect that offensive words become inoffensive when you mention them rather than use them, but this is not the case: such words still jump from the page and may trigger outrage.