Unit 8A, Motivation Notes
(Updated for 20ll; goes with Ch. 12 in 2007 book)
I. Introductory terms
Page 327 Aron Ralston’s story is depicted in the movie, 127 Hours.
Motivation the need or desire that energizes or directs behavior
Drive a state of arousal triggered by a need; drives are psychological/needs are physiological
Ex: hunger, sex, thirst
Instinct complex, unlearned behavior exhibited by all members of a species
Ex: bears hiberating
II. Motivational Concepts 328
From what perspectives do psychologists view motivated behavior?
a. instinct/evolutionary psychology (Darwin)
Genes predispose you to display specific behaviors
Emphasizes biological factors
Human behavior is directed by needs and wants, not instincts; an infant’s sucking and rooting reflexes are innate
b. Drive reduction physiological needs create tension motivating you to satisfy those needs
Emphasizes biological factors
Ex: getting water to reduce thirst
i. Homeostasis maintaining a balanced or constant internal state
ii. Incentives a pos. or neg. stimuli that motivate you
Ex: electric shock, $100
These are related to Skinner’s reinforcements and punishments.
c. optimal arousal 329
Curiosity, taking risks, exploring. These reduce boredom.
ex: going to movies that arouse you
Yerkes/ Dodson Arousal Law the arousal-performance relationship; arousal increases performance up to a point; for simpler tasks high arousal is necessary; for difficult tasks, low arousal is key.
d. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 330
Five levels see figure 8A. 2 on page 331
The physiological needs must be satisfied first
i. most basic
ex. food, water
Then the safety needs
Then the psychological needs
Second highest motives relate to self –actualization, living up to one’s potential
Finally, self-transcendence needs finding need and meaning beyond one’s self; it’s transpersonal
III. Hunger 331
A. Stomach contractions accompany our feeling of hunger
But research shows: hunger continues even in those with removed stomachs
Cannon and Washburn’s research on page 474-475
The Physiology of Hunger 332
A.L. Washburn (and Walter Cannon) found that every time he had a stomach contraction he felt hunger. Go figure.
B. Brain chemistry and hunger: Glucose
Form of sugar in body used for energy
When low we feel hungry
Insulin: secreted by the pancreas; increases in diminish blood glucose; when blood glucose drops you feel hungry
Hypoglycemia: low blood sugar due to lack of food
Hyperglycemia: sugars too high; aka diabetes, the pancreas can’t metabolize carbohydrates
C. Set Point maintain over time; your weight thermostat
When body wt. falls below, hunger occurs
Many researchers have abandoned set point for settling point: a person’s wt. in response to calories, environment and biology
D. Metabolic rate
Basal metabolic rate: body’s base rate of energy expenditure
E. Hypothalamus: controls eating and other body maintenance functions
The lateral hypothalamus brings on hunger
The ventromedial hypothalamus depresses hunger
The hormone orexin triggers hunger.
PYY is the fullness hormone
Ghreline is the hunger hormone
Leptin: a protein that acts as an appetite suppressant
F. The psychology of hunger 335
What psychological and cultural factors influence hunger?
Rozin (1998) found that one factor is knowing when we had our last meal.
Externals are motivated to eat by environmental stimuli
We don’t tend to like novel foods; this is known as neophobia
Taste preferences: Biology and Culture 335
Sweet and salty preferences are genetic.
Other preferences, like for spicy foods, are adaptive, related to preserving foods due to the environment.
The Ecology of Eating 336
We can overeat due to social facilitation, the presences of others, especially at parties or other gatherings.
Unit bias affects weight; how big are the serving sizes. Americans are bombarded with messages to “supersize” food and beverages by stores and companies.
G. Eating disorders 337
1. Anorexia nervosa
Drastic weight loss can occur: less 85% of body wt.
Undernourished
Fear of becoming obese
Low self esteem/depression
More women than men
30% with die
2. Bulimia nervosa
Binge purge episodes
Women have declining satisfaction in their appearance; and an increasing incidence of eating disorders.
Low self esteem depression
More women than men
Fear of being overweight
Easier to hide than anorexia: bulimics tend to be near normal weight
Binge eating disorder can occur with this one.
Factors in eating disorders:
a. genetics
b. culture: the thin ideal
c. family influences
d. see page 339, figure 8A.7 for the biopsychosocial model of eating disorder factors
Obesity and Weight Control 340
What factors predispose some people to become and remain obese?
Our bodies store fat but in a culture of overabundance
Type 1 Diabetes: insulin dependence and blood sugar monitoring; starts in childhood
Type 2: adult onset; inactivity and poor diet; pancreas no longer able to handle sugar levels
The social effects of obesity 341
Regina Pingitore (1994) demonstrated weight discrimination in mock job interviews.
Obesity leads to lower psychological well-being.
The physiology of obesity 342
Fat cells
Once they increase, they never decrease
Genes, childhood eating patterns, and adult overeating influence their growth
Set points and metabolism
Falling below your set point you feel an increase in hunger and a decrease in metabolism
We underestimate our caloric intake and overestimate our physical activity
Genetic factors
a. studies reveal a genetic influence on body weight
b. twins have similar weights when raised separately
c. obese parents are more likely to have obese children
8. Food and activity factors 344
Sleep loss is a factor
Social influence is a factor
The influence of culture
Media and corporations are influencing behaviors: consuming more food and watching more TV
Western cultures like animal feedlots
Inactivity: a nation of spectators
Bigger food unit and beverage unit sizes
Losing Weight 346
Most on weight loss programs gain all weight lost back (males and females)
Close up, page 347
Worst advice for a dieter: don’t starve all day and eat one big meal at night
Best advice:
Change diet habits for life/eat healthy; make moderate changes, gradually.
Exercise, exercise
Set realistic goals
Take it gradually
IV. Sexual Motivation 348
A. Physiologically based motive (like hunger) with learning and value components
The Sexual Response Cycle 349
What stages mark the human sexual response cycle?
B. Alfred Kinsey, first to study behavior scientifically
1. He found sexual behavior to be enormously varied
C . Masters and Johnson Sexual response cycles
Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution
Sexual feelings are similar in males and females with fMRI and PET scans showing similar subcortical brain regions active
Refractory period rest phase during male cannot return to arousal state (another orgasm)
The cycle is similar to Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) in Unit 8B (see page 399): the alarm phase is similar to the excitement stage; the resistance phase is similar to the plateau stage; the exhaustion phase relates to the orgasm and refractory periods.
D. Sexual disorders
1. premature ejaculation
2. erectile disfunction
3. orgamic disorder
Treatments usually include behaviorally oriented therapy
E . Hormones and sexual behavior 350
How do hormones influence human sexual motivation?
The hypothalamus detects sex hormone levels
Estrogen: sex hormone found in greater amounts in women
Testosterone: both males and females have, but greater amounts in males leads to development of male sex organs
As testosterone levels decline with age frequency of sexual interest and activity lessen
F. The Psychology of Sex 351
How do internal and external stimuli influence sexual motivation?
The amygdala processes the signals to determine an emotional response for sexual situations
External stimuli
Both men and women respond to erotica, but fMRI scans indicate more active amydala in men
External stimuli can have a damaging effect
Sexual motivation has biopsychosocial influences as depicted in fig. 8A.14, p. 351
Imagination 352
Dreams have erotic potential and most people have sexual fantasies.
G. Adolescent sexuality 352
Sexual expression varies widely with time and culture
1. STIs sexually transmitted infections
2. Teen pregnancy factors:
a. ignorance about reproduction
b. guilt related to sexual activity
c. lack of communication about birth control
d. alcohol use depresses brain centers for decision making and judgment
e. mainstream media promotes the norm of unprotected promiscuity
3. Abstinence messaging increasing
Factors in delaying pregnancy:
a. high intelligence
b. religiosity
c. father presence
d. service learning volunteering
Sexually transmitted infections 353
2/3 of new infections with people under age 25
The U.S. emphasizes teen abstinence.
Factors that lead to this behavior:
Intelligence
Religion
Father presence
Service learning
All leading to declining teen birth rates since 1991.
H. Sexual orientation 354
What has research taught us about sexual orientation?
Enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex or the other sex
Orientation statistics:
1. 3-4% men and 1-2 % women are homosexual
2. Homosexuality is not a mental disorder: APA (2007)
2. Homosexual orientation is persistent/difficult to change
3. Fraternal birth order effect:
4. Homosexuality is more common than bisexuality
5. Male homosexuality is more common than female
6. The environmental influences on homo and heterosexuals are similar
Origins of sexual orientation
It is at least partly physiological\biological
1. genetics studies of family members and twins
2. men with older brothers are more likely to be gay (fraternal birth order effect)
3. exposure to certain hormones during prenatal development
Same sex animal attraction
Evidence of homosexuality in several hundred species
Wendell and Cass, penguins as an example
The brain and sexual orientation
Straight-gay differences in body and brain (Simon LeVay’s studies: 357)
LeVay conducted a blind study of the hypothalamus.
Genes and sexual orientation
Homosexuality does run in families
Twin studies
Genetic manipulation in fruit flies
Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation
Biological factors may predispose a temperament that influences sexuality.
Daryl Bem theorizes that genes code for prenatal hormones and brain anatomy, which predispose temperaments that lead children to prefer gender typical or atypical activities.
V. The need to belong 359
What evidence points to our human need to belong?
Roy Baumeister (1995) found evidence for a social need to belong.
1. Aiding survival
2. Wanting to belong: need to affiliate: feel connected to others
3. Acting to increase social acceptance; to avoid rejection we conform to group standards
Sustaining relationships 361
4. Maintaining relationships
U.S. immigration policies encourage chain migration
The pain of Ostracism
5. Ostracism: being excluded by others
Kipling Williams discovered cyber-ostracism (2006): ignoring someone on line or email
Anterior cingulate cortex: when we are ostracized, this area experiences increased activity; can feel like physical pain
6. We conform to peer pressure because of belongingness needs
7. When are belongingness needs are fulfilled we are less likely to commit suicide, get sick, suffer mental illness
Terms to know: 364
AP Practice Questions: 364-365
VI. Psychology at Work Appendix B
The nature of work
A. Csikszentmihalyi (1999) and Flow: focused state of consciousness where you lose sense of time
B. Industrial/Organizational psychology (I/O)
Training employees, boosting productivity, assessing products
C. Personnel psychology
D. Organizational Psychology: how environment and management relate to human motivation
Human Factors Psychology: optimal design for human use
Personnel Psychology B-2
How do personnel psychologists help organizations with employee selection, work placement, and performance appraisal?
Identifying worker strengths and matching them to the job assignment.
Do Interviews Predict Performance? B-4
Interviewer judgments are weak predictors
Interviewer illusion: overrating the judgment of a candidate based on the interview
According to Richard Nisbett (1987)
They presume people are like they appear to be in the interview
Preconceptions and moods color how they perceive interviewee’s answers
The interviewee’s good intentions are less revealing than habits
Structured interviews B-5
Asking the same questions of all applicants
Appraising performance B-6
360- degree feedback: you and others supervising you rate your performance
Halo error: being friends with the employee influences your rating of their performance
Organizational Psychology: Motivating Achievement B-7
What is the role of organizational psychologists?
Henry Murray (1936) defined achievement motivation: desire for significant accomplishment
Murray’s definition of achievement
i. Mastering skills
ii. Desiring control
ii. Attaining a high standard
David McCleland: Believed fantasies would reflect achievement concerns
High achievers like moderately difficult tasks: they can attribute success to their own skills
Discipline outdoes talent (Martin Seligman)
Grit: passionate dedication to a long term goal (Seligman)
10 year or 10,000 hour rule (Herbert Simon): needed great achievement.
Satisfaction and Engagement B-8
Employee engagement: does the worker identify enthusiastically with the employer and job?
Close-Up: Robert Owen set up New Lanark Mills to provide factory employment that was more enjoyable and less exploitative; he did also record production of each employee for managing profit.
C. Intrinsic motivation
Do something for the inner satisfaction or joy
D. Extrinsic motivation
Desire to perform based on promised rewards or to avoid punishment
E. How rewards affect motivation
Controlling reward: I’ll give you five dollars for every A
Child: as long as she pays, I’ll study (extrinsic motivation)
Mom: your grades were great. Let’s celebrate by going out for dinner
F. Managing employees well B-10
Harnessing Job-Relevant Strengths
1. Setting challenging goals
Subgoals and implementation intentions
Choosing an Appropriate Leadership Style B-11
1. Task leadership
Sets standards
Organizes work
Ex: reminded employees of deadlines for assignments
2. Social leadership
Builds teamwork
Provides support
4. Great person theory of leadership: overrated; said all leaders have certain traits
5. Charisma: vision, communication, inspiration
Transformational Leadership: motivates commitment to the group’s mission
6. Voice effect; giving workers voice in decisions: they respond to this
Theory X goes with task leadership
a. Focuses on extrinsic motivation
b. Task masters
d. assumes workers are lazy, motivated by money
e. need a leader to accomplish anything
4. Theory Y correlates with social leaders
a. Focuses on intrinsic motivation
b. These managers are good at employee achievement motivation
c. assumes workers are motivated toward self esteem, to demonstrate competence