Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood
Chapter 6
Cognitive Development (Piaget)
• Preoperational thinking (preschool)
– Egocentrism
– Appearance = reality
– No thought reversal
• Concrete Operational period (7-11)
– Less egocentric, appearances do not = reality, & mental operations possible
– Limited to concrete, real, tangible (not abstract)
Cognitive Development (Piaget)
• Formal Operational period (11->)
– Mental operations are applied to non-tangibles
• Abstract thought & deductive reasoning
• Hypothetical thought possible
– Basic logic possible
• Even if inconsistent with facts
• Problems = abstractions
Cognitive Development (Piaget)
• Critique of Piaget
– Formal operational thinking not always applied
• More likely when problem self-relevant
– Formal operation not end of cognitive development (as Piaget thought it was)
• Cognitive changes continue throughout adulthood
Information Processing Views
• Cognitive develoment = gradual efficiency increases in processing information
• Use of memory strategies (rehearsal)
– 7-8 year olds use this
• Older children better able to pick most effective strategy
– Monitoring learning progress improves w/ age
Intelligence
• What is intelligence?
– g
– Multiple intelligences
• Hierarchical view
– g -> intellectual skills -> specific skills
Intelligence
• Gardner: 9 intelligences
– Linguistic, logical-math, spatial, musical, body-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential
– Unique developmental histories
– Distinct neurological control
– No relation among intelligences
• E.g., savants
Intelligence
• Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory (3 subtheories)
– Componential subtheory: components key
• Information processing skills that combine for task completion
– Experiential subtheory
• Novel situations: application of existing knowledge
• Familiar situations: automaticity key
– Contextual subtheory:
• Intelligent functioning depends on context (US v. Brazil)
Intelligence Testing
• Stanford Binet, (WISC-III)
– Set of tasks (verbal, spatial, math)
• Do they work?
– Reliable (consistency of measurement)?
• YES!
• Scores from same individual at 2 times correlate
– Valid (really measures intelligence)?
• YES!
• Predict school & work performance
Intelligence Testing
• WISC-III (traditional test)
– Assesses existing knowledge & skills
• Dynamic testing
– Assesses learning potential
– Involves new material/information/skills
• Amount learned = intelligence
• Both useful for predicting future skill
– Current skill & potential
Heredity of Intelligence
• Highly heritable (50%-60%)
– Twin, adoption studies
• Heritability increases w/ age
• Not all genes:
• MZ twin correlation < 1.0
• Family environment key
• Flynn effect (IQ increasing 3 pts/decade)
• Interventions increase IQ, school achievement
Ethnicity & Intelligence
• Asian > European > Hispanic > African American
• Why?: NOT genetics
– Socioeconomic status (not totally)
– Culturally biased tests (nope)
– Test taking skills (perhaps)
Interpreting Intelligence Tests
• Designed to measure school performance
– Useful for predicting academic work
• Not necessarily life success indicator
– At least not traditional forms of intelligence
• Social/emotional intelligence may be more key
Gifted & Creative Children
• Gifted
– IQ > = 130
– Exceptional talent (art, music, dance, etc.)
– Not socially or emotionally troubles
– Prerequisites
• Child’s love of and desire to master the subject
• Excellent early instruction (challenging)
• Supportive parents committed to child’s talent
Gifted & Creative Children
• Creativity: divergent thinking
– Measured by naming multiple uses for objects
• Piece of paper, hanger
– Must be cultivated by parents, teachers & experiences encouraging flexibility
Mental Retardation
• Substantially below-average IQ (< 70)
• Many types
– Organic (25%): due to biological problem
• Down Syndrome (extra 21st chromosome)
– Familial: no known biological problem
• Lower end of normal intelligence
• Profound/severe require custodial care (10%)
• Moderate/mild are educable/trainable (90%)
Learning Disabilities
• Difficulty mastering academic subjects
• Normal intelligence
• 5% of US children but widely varied
– Language, reading, arithmetic
• Treatment involves identifying specific disability & intensive training
– Can be effective in improving performance
ADHD
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
– 3%-5% with 3x more boys
– Biological roots w/ hereditary components
– Symptoms (varies) can last into adulthood
• Overactivity
• Inattention
• Impulsivity
• Effective treatments include medication & psychosocial therapy
Reading
• Key processes
• Word recognition
• Comprehension
Reading
• Word recognition
– Knowledge of letters
– Phonological awareness
• Key predictors of reading
Reading
• Words are recognized via:
– Sounding out
• Most common for beginning readers
– Memory (default but used more & more w/ age & experience)
• Search for match of letter sequence
– Context (used more w/ age & experience)
• Limitations on words/letters speeds recognition
– The last word in this sentence is cat [no limits]
– My pet dog chased the cat [something chased by dog]
Reading
• Comprehension
– Combine words to form propositions
• The tall boy rode this bike
– There is a boy, the boy is tall, the boy was riding
– Propositions combined to derive meaning
Reading
• Comprehension improves with age due to:
– Working memory increases
• Retain more of a sentence in memory
– Greater knowledge of world
– Greater experience = more appropriate reading strategies
– Greater experience = better progress monitoring
Math skills
• Initial strategy includes finger counting
• Grade school children begin mental counting
• Once children learn addition tables memory retrieval is used
• U.S. children far poorly v. Asian children
Schools
• American high school graduates are not highly literate
– Average score < 300/500
– Greater literacy may be critical to job success
– How can literacy be enhanced?
Effective Schools
• Understanding that academic excellence is the goal of school & students
• Safe, nurturant climate
• Parental involvement
• Progress monitoring
– These factors enhance student success
Effective Teachers
• Effective classroom management
• Take responsibility for student learning
• Mastery approach
• Active teaching style
• Careful pacing
• Value tutoring
• Teach children progress monitoring