World Leaders

  1. Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein changed the physics community with new views on space, matter, and time. His special theory of relativity and mass-energy equivalence (E=mc2) was a ground-breaking idea at the core of twentieth century physics. Over the next five decades, Einstein was a leader in modern physics, winning the Nobel Prize in 1921 as he theorized new approaches to beliefs that had been held since the time of Isaac Newton. He was also a key figure in urging the United States to develop atomic weapons, though he later advocated against their use.

  1. Augustine of Hippo

Augustine of Hippo was one of the most important theologians and philosophers in Christianity. His works influenced the development of the early Church. He is considered a saint and doctor in both the Catholic and Anglican Churches. He introduced Neoplatonism to Christianity and established the idea of the Church as a “City of God” during the fall of Rome. He became the Bishop of Hippo and attacked what he perceived to be false teachings in his writings. Augustine openly criticized his contemporaries who challenged ideas like the role of reason in faith.

  1. Benazir Bhutto

After completing her education in the U.S. and England, Benazir Bhutto followed in her father’s footsteps as a leader in Pakistan. At a time when Pakistan was ruled by a military dictatorship, she demanded a democratically elected government. In 1998 she became one of the youngest heads of states when she was elected prime minister of Pakistan. She became a symbol for rights and greater equality in Pakistan and other Muslim countries. She demonstrated great courage in returning to Pakistan in 2007 despite threats against her life. After her assassination, she continued to be a symbol for all people in Pakistan seeking democracy.

  1. Benito Juárez

Of Zapotec ancestry, Benito Juárez served as Mexico’s president for five terms between 1858 and 1872. He brought order and stability when political turmoil between liberals and conservatives dominated Mexico, and other nations, specifically the United States and France, threatened Mexican sovereignty. Juárez advocated to continue fighting during the Mexican War, rather than giving up a third of the country as mandated in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. He fought against the French when they established the short-lived Empire of Mexico under the leadership of Archduke Maximilian, the Hapsburg heir, and eventually ordered his execution.

  1. Catherine the Great

Catherine the Great was able to assert supreme power as czarina in Russia even though she was not born into the Russian blood line. Once securing control, she attempted several reforms to support education, disband serfdom, and extend political rights of the common people. Although she was not able to complete all her goals, Catherine made Russia a significant force in European politics and expanded the Russian territory.

  1. Charlemagne

Charlemagne is often called the father of modern France, Germany, and even Europe. He unified Europe from western France to central Germany, from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, for the first time since the days of the Roman Empire. To conquer these lands, he personally led armies with sharp tactical skills. Pope Leo III recognized his leadership and defense of the Roman Catholic Church by crowning himImperator Romanorum(Emperor of the Romans). Under Charlemagne, this new Holy Roman Empire became the cultural leader of Europe.

  1. Chinua Achebe

Chinua Achebe was a poet, novelist and essayist, and was one of the first Africans to challenge Western depictions of Africa and Africans through literature. Achebe’s work was groundbreaking and inspired an entire movement of African literature by Africans, whose main goal was to write about Africa with a native voice. Achebe’s stories captured readers with vivid details and literary devices; these novels contribute to a more balanced perspective of Africans. Essentially, Achebe’s novels allowed Africans to tell the story of Africa; his novels spoke for all those who had been silenced during the European colonization of Africa.

  1. Deng Xiaoping

As the architect of China’s economic revival, Deng Xiaoping is responsible for overseeing one of the greatest economic turnarounds in world history. Within 30 years, China went from being a nation with a troubled economy to the second largest economy in the world. Deng’s revolutionary model of combining a communist government with a capitalist economy created a powerful instrument for change. Political repression reigned in dissent, while China’s entrepreneurs and foreign investors enjoyed economic freedom. Deng’s political influence shifted frequently before he assumed power in 1978 and drastically altered China’s economic trajectory.

  1. Desmond Tutu

Desmond Tutu was a bishop in the Anglican Church who worked to end apartheid, the system of separating blacks and whites, in South Africa. He had experienced the discrimination and denial of rights of the black population in South Africa and urged people to peacefully protest. Under his leadership, the South African Council of Churches challenged the nation’s government to end apartheid. Tutu encouraged people in other countries to join South Africans in peacefully opposing apartheid. After apartheid ended in 1994, Bishop Tutu led a commission to help South Africa repair the deep divisions among the people of South Africa. After the end of apartheid Tutu continued to work to ensure a democratic South Africa with freedom for all and he advocated for justice everywhere in the world.

  1. Elizabeth I

Elizabeth I took the throne in 1558 at a time in which England found itself divided by religious conflict, prone to succession battles, and vulnerable to two powerful overseas rivals. Her reign ended, however, with England at relative calm at home and still independent and more powerful abroad. An intelligent, educated, and savvy woman, Elizabeth led her nation through a golden age, bringing stability and prosperity to her people. She did this despite the prejudices toward women and the many jealous rivals to her claim to the throne.

  1. Emperor Meiji

Emperor Mutsuhito’s reign, the Meiji (“enlightened peace”) Era, saw Japan evolve from a country threatened by Western dominance to one of the foremost economic and military powers in the world. To achieve this, he made the difficult decision to adopt many Western ways and customs in a country very proud of its native culture. Many traditional clan leaders resented the infusion of foreign ideas, but by introducing these changes the Emperor used Western means to preserve Japanese spirit and independence from foreign rule, protecting them from European colonization and bringing them to international prominence.

  1. François-Marie Arouet

No one defined the Enlightenment more than Voltaire, a French writer and public activist. While Voltaire was born and died in Paris, his travels and letters spanned Europe. He defended the idea that everyone should be allowed to publicly express any opinion. He wrote letters to many of the leading political, intellectual, literary and scientific leaders of his age offering advice on governance and rights a ruler should allow his people. He was also an active playwright and fearless defender of various scientific and political philosophies, serving exiles in England and Switzerland as a consequence of his efforts.

  1. Genghis Khan

Remembered mostly for the slaughtering of millions of people while building his empire, Genghis Khan’s legacy is also one of tolerance, innovation, advancements, peace and prosperity. Despite a harsh, nomadic upbringing, Genghis Khan created the largest empire in the world, and connected millions of people through the Mongol’s protection of trade routes. This trade zone also helped spread the bubonic plague from Asia to Europe, causing one of the largest demographic events in world history.

  1. Henry IV of France

Henry of Navarre (who would rule France as King Henry IV) was the victor at the end of one of the bloodiest episodes in French history. As a general, Henry of Navarre, a Protestant, fought against Catholic and royal forces before later converting to Catholicism to take the throne in 1594. As king, he undertook a number of measures to unify the French government, including the Edict of Nantes in 1598. These laws allowed a degree of religious toleration for Protestants in France. Henry IV was one of the first monarchs to elevate national unity above religion in terms of importance for a ruler.

  1. Ho Chi Minh

As an advocate for Vietnamese nationalism, Ho Chi Minh led the movement to end the French colonial rule of Vietnam and founded the Vietnamese Communist Party. During World War II, Ho led forces against the Japanese occupation, and after the war he stood up to the French reoccupation of his homeland. In an effort to stop Ho's communist influence from spreading to Southern Vietnam, the United States became embroiled in the Vietnam War. Ho prevailed in the war and the capital of Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City in his honor.

  1. Issac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton revolutionized mathematical thought, founding the science of physics and the mathematical study of calculus. Building off the work of previous European scientists, Newton articulated the physical laws by which the movement of objects, from as minor as an apple to as major as a planet, occurred. Though he often found himself mired in controversy during his lifetime, he left a legacy as one of Western civilization’s most brilliant mathematical minds. His theories served as the foundation for the school of science known as physics for more than two centuries.

  1. Joan of Arc

A daughter of a farmer, Joan of Arc rose to lead France’s army at a time when her country was in danger of being controlled by England. Her religious beliefs and courage in battle motivated the army of France to follow her and gain important victories. Her actions also cleared the way for Charles VII to take the throne as the king of France. Joan is revered by the French for her sacrifice for her country but she is also a symbol of courage and resistance for any people whose freedom is threatened.

  1. Jomo Kenyatta

Jomo Kenyatta is considered the father of Kenya’s independence movement. Kenyatta represented Kenya in multiple negotiations with the British over 30 years. After World War II he formed a new political party, the Kenyan African Union, with a goal of an independent Kenya. Despite the violent Mau Mau rebellion in the 1950’s, Kenyatta wanted a peaceful transfer of power. After independence Kenyatta adopted policies to ensure a stable nation.

  1. Joseph Stalin

As dictator of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953, Joseph Stalin established the direction of global communism, and set the tone of the Cold War. Stalin manipulated his rise to power in communist Russia, orchestrated the industrialization of the Soviet Union, contributed to the defeat of Nazi Germany, and forced communism on Eastern Europe following World War II.

  1. Karl Marx

Karl Marx was the founding father of socialism and communism. He looked at a world that took advantage of the working class and how urbanization and capitalism disenfranchised society. Compelled by a need for change and revolution, he composedThe Communist Manifesto, which demanded major political, social, and economic transformation. His books were the inspiration for many revolutions in the twentieth century, as well as the appeal of communism to many developing countries during the Cold War.

  1. Kwame Nkrumah

Kwame Nkrumah believed that Ghana should not remain a colony of England. He convinced the British to give the people of Ghana more representation and was elected prime minister in 1952. He campaigned for adoption of a new constitution and became Ghana’s president, under a new constitution, after independence was granted in 1957. As president Nkrumah worked to modernize Ghana and improve its economy.

  1. Lee Kuan Yew

As the founding father of the independent city-state of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew transformed a third-world economy to one of the strongest in the world. He served as prime minister from 1959 to 1990, and his uninterrupted reign facilitated fulfillment of his vision. From the beginning, Lee recognized that Singapore needed a strong economy in order to survive as an independent country, and he launched a program to industrialize Singapore and transform it into a major exporter of finished goods. Within 30 years, Lee fulfilled his goal of industrializing, urbanizing, and educating his country.

  1. Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo da Vinci serves as the best example of the “Renaissance Man.” He symbolized the flowering of culture, and science that took place in Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. He built on the work of early Renaissance artists to bring even more lifelike features to painting and sculpture, thus inspiring a later generation of artists such as Michelangelo and Raphael. Though most famous for his contributions to the visual arts, he also pioneered the study of other fields as diverse as anatomy and flight.

  1. Lorenzo de’ Medici

Lorenzo de’ Medici recognized the importance of the arts. As the heir to a major European banking business, he used his family’s vast wealth to fund painters, sculptors, and architects, helping Florence emerge as a cultural center and spurring the Renaissance at great personal cost. He led the city-state as a despot, using everything from friendship to threats to secure and maintain his power. He cared greatly about Florence’s success, even putting himself in harm’s way to settle conflicts with rivals.

  1. Louis XIV

Louis XIV not only ruled France for more than 50 years, he came to symbolize the nation and the concept of divine right monarchy. His authority in France was absolute, ending decades of attempts to diminish the monarch’s power. Versailles, the palace he built and which has become synonymous with his reign, served as an opulent center for Western culture. The arts flourished, and France became a great military power dominating over the other nations in Europe.

  1. Mao Zedong

As founder of the People’s Republic of China, Mao Zedong transformed China from a traditional economy dominated by European nations to a communist nation that rejected western values and cultural elements. He led the Chinese communists through a great civil war and Japanese occupation during World War II. The economic reforms implemented in the Great Leap Forward negatively impacted the nation, but Mao led his newly created People’s Republic of China to a position on the world stage. He consolidated power through land reform and reasserted control through the Cultural Revolution, with mixed results.

  1. Margaret Thatcher

Margaret Thatcher served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom for more than a decade. As the first elected female leader of a Western nation, she restructured her nation’s economy. Thatcher also led a foreign policy that both asserted Britain’s independence and its ability to work effectively with other nations. Though many of her policies generated controversy, some political scientists credit her actions with creating a stronger and more assertive Britain after years of decline.

  1. Mikhail Gorbachev

Mikhail Gorbachev was a key figure in the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War. His reformist policies brought about political and economic instability to an economy that had not seen growth for two decades. The Soviet Union could not compete with U.S. military spending and the Reagan administration’s threatening of the Strategic Defense Initiative. In the late 1980s, Gorbachev allowed Eastern European satellite states to break away from Soviet control, and later allowed Soviet republics to achieve independence, which brought an end to the Soviet Union.

  1. Mohandas Gandhi

Mohandas Gandhi believed that passive resistance to authority would allow India to gain its independence from Great Britain. Gandhi had seen discrimination and inequality while living in South Africa. After returning to India he continued to urge his followers to passively resist the British colonial government. He organized economic boycotts to protest the economic inequality of colonialism. Gandhi led the Indian independence movement by orchestrating peaceful, nonviolent protests and marches, often in the face of violent resistance. In 1948, England granted India its independence.

  1. Mustafa Atatürk

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk dedicated his life to saving and preserving his country. As a military officer he led the Ottoman Empire to victory at Gallipoli in World War I. Later he led the armies that drove foreign powers from postwar Turkey. Atatürk became the leader of Turkey in 1923, and he undertook a campaign to rapidly modernize the country. Striving to put Turkey on even footing with the nations of Europe, Atatürk took bold measures, granting women suffrage and separating the state from the Islamic church. These reforms represented departures from traditional Turkish culture, showing the seriousness of his desire to modernize Turkey.

  1. Napoleon Bonaparte

One of the most brilliant military leaders in history, Napoleon Bonaparte changed warfare with his innovative tactics. As a politician, his rule stabilized France after ten years of upheaval and failed governments. He introduced economic reforms and a Civil Code that became the model for most of Europe. However, his rule became absolute, and he denied citizens key civil rights. He made military errors toward the end of his reign, one of which – invading Russia – remains one of the greatest calamities in military history. His triumphs and failures make for a complex legacy.