UNDAC environmental impact assessment tropical storm Jeanne, Gonaives, Haiti
UNITED NATIONS
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
Office of the Resident Coordinator, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Floods in Haiti
UNDAC Mission
22 SEPTEMBER- 7 OCTOBER 2004
Environmental impact assessment
Sander Van Dijk
Raquel R. B. Negrelle
Objective of this environmental impact assessment
A quick environmental impact assessment of the tropical storm Jeanne was carried out within the most affected area, the city of Gonaives and its direct surrounding. This assessment was based on the observations of the members of the UNDAC team, interviews with citizens and other residents, a small literature review, and an interview with local authorities and the State Secretary of Environment. The goal of the assessment is to address possible environmental issues that need to be followed up upon. The evaluation does not pretend to give a deep insight nor be all-inclusive.
Summary:
Various potential long- and short-term environmental impacts of the storm and floods have been assessed. Due to the very poor environmental situation prior to the storm most potential effects do not sort additional deterioration of the environmental conditions.
Short-term effects
Especially the short-term effects are not likely to pose serious additional risks compared to the pre-disaster situation. The following potential short-term risks are taken into account:
- Spill of anthropogenic chemical substances e.g. originating from industry, agriculture and oil products.
- Spill, resuspension metabolism of toxicants from natural origin.
- Sanitation facilities, (polluted)dust after the mud has been dried.
The potential epidemiological consequences are not accounted for since these are described in the information sheets concerning health.
Long-term effects
Substantial amounts of mud flowing into the sea can seriously harm coral marine environments by covering them and reducing the reproduction capacity.
Fortunately no mud seems to have entered the sea. The sea level at the moment of the flood was high and even pushed the water back. The mud stream and the high water of the sea apparently seem to have met in the city of Gonaives itself and mud resided there without reaching the shore
The observed long-term impacts as erosion and spreading of solid waste contribute to a certain extend to the ongoing deterioration. The effects are a combination of existing preconditions and the event of the disaster itself. To prevent or reduce future effects of storms and floods the general environmental conditions on forestation, sanitation and (water) infrastructure are the main factors to improve. The improvements of the environmental conditions are mainly dependent on a consistent socio-economical and political situation.
General and historical overview of the environmental situation
( main source: )
Haiti is located in the high latitude tropics, between 18 and 23° north. Its position and mountainous terrain, with peaks up to 2 684 meters and few arable plains, have created extremes of weather and temperature regimes which vary greatly with altitude. Haiti's land area of 27 700 km2 is primarily mountainous, 63 percent of the land has slopes greater than 20 percent, over 40 percent of all lands are above 400 meters in elevation and only 29 percent has slopes less than 10 percent. Rainfall ranges from 300 mm in the northwest peninsula to 3 000 mm in the mountains of the southwest. Extreme events such as hurricanes, droughts and floods are quite frequent.
Due to its mountainous nature and its high population of almost eight million persons on the relatively small surface area, Haiti relies upon a disproportionate amount of steep hillsides to meet much of its agricultural production. Erosion is thus the most serious problem affecting the agricultural sector, with an annual soil loss of about 36 million Tons. The overwhelming environmental problem ofthe country is thus soil erosion.This has led to declining crop yields, damage to downstream lands and water development projects and the destruction of coastal marine resources. Most hillsides are highly eroded and most widely practised cropping systems encourage continued erosion.
With limited economic growth and resources, and severe infrastructure problems, Haiti remains vulnerable to environmental degradation. Two or more crops a year are grown in most areas under the bimodal rainfall distribution with its possibilities of multicropping.
The environmental deterioration in Gonaives, as well as in Haiti is not a recent process. Controversely, it started with European contact to the island of Hispaniola in 1492. The paleobotanic pollen data from the study carried out by Higuera-Gundy (1989)[1] clearly show that modern vegetation disruption is far more severe than at any time prior to the arrival of Europeans. In the early 1700’s, the exploitation of the forest resources of the new French colony of ‘Saint Domingue [Haiti]’ accelerated as whole mountain ranges were deforested for the valuable forest hardwoods, and land was cleared for plantations and other forms of agriculture ( Parisky, 1989)[2]. The main cash crop during the 1700’s was sugar. By 1789, Haiti controlled ¾ of the world’s market share of sugar (Farmer)[3]. After Haiti became a free Republic in 1804, mismanagement of environment resources continued specially because of the timber export to pay reparations to France and France’s plantation owners. Another example seen after the disintegration of the social matrix of slavery was in the exploitation of peasants by the State and the commercial social class. As Haiti attempted to survive in the international market following independence it relied heavily on an export economy, a remnant of colonialism. The plantation system was no longer dominant, but the State and the elite commercial class forced the rural peasants into producing cash crops for export. The State enacted taxes on subsistence production. In essence, a farmer was taxed for crops that were not produced for export. The State needed revenue from exports to pay off debts and subsidize infrastructure and industrialization projects for Haiti.
The taxes against subsistence agriculture no longer exist, but the demand for cash is omnipresent in Haiti’s urban areas and countryside. The informal economy delivers some of this cash, and a large component of the informal economy is the production, distribution, and sale of charcoal. A majority of women use charcoal when cooking their meals.
Charcoal as a cooking fuel source has become entrenched in the Haitian society and culture. Charcoal is produced from burning timber at very low temperatures over a long period of time. As the demand for cash remains, the demand for timber remains as well. According Bryant (1996)[4], this deforestation stepped up during the international trade embargo, between 1991-1994, as people burned trees for the fuel they could no longer import. Haiti's exploding population growth hasn't helped either. Strapped for cash and burdened by innumerable needs, the government has not placed a major emphasis on conservation.
For McGeehin (2004)[5], the environmental problem in Haiti is situated on a node of an infinite amount of cultural, social, economic, political, and ecological relations. A significant part of the deforestation discussion reveals the notion of social construction of scarcity. Timber is a scarce resource in Haiti, because its value as revenue meant its exploitation. An inherent dollar sign does not constitute the bark of a great mango tree or its branches do not release green leaves of cash. The discourse of an export economy applies a monetary meaning to a tree. Its monetary value is, therefore, constructed.
Recent reference situation of the effected area of Gonaives
(source: (gōnäēv´), city (2004 est. pop. 250,000), W Haiti, a port on the Gulf of Gonaïves and capital of Artibonite dept. The region's agricultural products (including coffee, cotton, sugar, and bananas) are exported from the city's natural harbor. Gonaïves is also a major commercial center and crossroad for transportation of products to and from the Northern part of Haiti. In 1804, Haiti's independence was proclaimed there.
As in Haiti in general the economical and general environmental situation of Gonaives is very poor. Mainly due to the use of charcoal as the main combustion source there is a wide extend of deforestation that regularly causes erosion. Sanitation is very poor and waste management hardly exists.
The marine environment at the shore of Gonaives mainly consists of a harbor. A substantial part of the watershed of the affected area drains into the harbor through 3 channels that all cross the city. In general the water quality in the harbor is poor. Garbage is piled up on the shore and into the water. According to our information (from locals) there are no coral reefs close to the harbor. The representative of the local authorities witnesses the existence of coral reefs about 2 kilometers from the main delta of the drainage point of Gonaives.
The region of Gonaives is mainly mountainous with alluvial planes and watersheds directly connected to the sea. Gonaives is located at the mouth of a U-shaped ring of mountains that forms a relatively small watershed directly draining into the sea. The three main draining rivers (besides various small streams) cross the city of Gonaives before entering into the sea. The soil mainly consists of rocky material on which in the pastures of the alluvial planes fertile sediment has resided.
Within the affected area three main natural environments could be distinguished.
- “Savannes Desole” a natural arid ecosystem close to the city of Gonaives.
- The mountainous region around Gonaives, of importance to the harvest of fruit.
- The region around Gros Mornes with a brought variety of mango species.
Principal environmental impacts identified as being associated with the emergency
Short-term impact
Anthropogenic toxicants
No heavy industry that requires substantial amounts of chemical substances is present in the region of Gonaives. The anthropogenic chemical substances within the region are mainly pesticides used for agricultural purposes. In addition gasoline, oil and bug-repellent are available in the region. During the floods the chemicals present might have been spilled, contaminating the water and mud still residing in the city and flushed into the marine environment. The quantities are supposed to be relatively small compared to the amounts of mud. The inhabitants live in direct contact with the potentially contaminated mud. Regardless of the potential risks, the concentrations are assessed not to exceed the usual background concentrations in this region. Due to the current conditions the exposure will be higher.
Salt
Close to the sea salt is gained in large basins. The basins were flooded and part of the salt may have been spread. Since the surrounding environment is saline no effects are expected.
Toxicants from natural origin
No information on the natural concentrations of toxicants in the soil of for instance heavy metals is available. Concentrations are assumed to be low.
The decay of cadavers is known to cause a substantial increase in the concentration of
metabolic toxicants like cadaverin and putrescine (di-amines formed during the process of decay). Although the substances are known to cause intoxication, no evidence of these effects is known by the representative of WHO during natural disasters comparable to the situation in Gonaives.
Other short-term impacts
Practically no sanitary facilities are currently in place. Taking into account the normal situation, the lack of sanitation does not impose a major additional environmental impact on (ground) water and soil. Apparently the concentration of mud in the surface waters of the rivers is currently high. A decrease can be expected and the situation will return to normal without a permanent disruption of the already poor ecosystem of the rivers.
Currently there is no systematic overview available destruction of crops and vegetation either ripped out or buried by sedimentary deposits caused by the flooding of lower-lying areas.
The expected concentrations of dust in the air, caused by the dry mud, do most likely not exceed the normal background concentrations since the most important source is presumed to be the roads which are more or less in the same condition as prior to the storm and flood.
Long-term environmental impact
From a part of the former agricultural areas the fertile soil is eroded and washed away, partially replaced by heavy clay. A serious long-term effect can be expected from this. The process of erosion mainly caused by the deforestation for the production of charcoal is an ongoing process already for many years and cannot be subscribed only to the disaster.
Substantial amounts of mud flowing into the sea can seriously harm coral marine environments by covering them and reducing the reproduction capacity.
Fortunately no mud seems to have entered the sea. The sea level at the moment of the flood was high and even pushed the water back. The mud stream and the high water of the sea apparently seem to have met in the city of Gonaives itself and mud resides there without reaching the shore. During an assessment at the delta of the watershed (close to the port of Gonaives) all structures (even fragile) were in place without traces of a mudflow.
There was and is practically no system of waste management. The additional waste from the relief operation contributes to a certain extent to this ongoing issue.
No clear picture has been drawn concerning the reference situation and the effects of the wind and floods on the more or less natural habitats. The usual arid area of “Savannes Desole” is known to be completely flooded and still under water. From the other habitats (mountainous region around Gonaives and Gros Mornes) not much is found on their former and actual diversity and intrinsic ecological value.
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[1]Gundy-Higuera, Antonia. “Recent Vegetation Changes in Southern Haiti.” Biogeography of the West Indies: Past, Present, Future. Ed. Charles Adams. Sandhill Crane Press. Gainesville: 1989.
[2]Paryski, Paul. “Conservation Strategies and the Preservation of Biological Diversity in Haiti.” Biogeography of the West Indies: Past, Present, Future. Ed. Charles Adams. Sandhill Crane Press. Gainesville: 1989.
[3] Farmer, Paul. The Uses of Haiti. Common Courage Press. Maine: 1994
[4] Haiti: Environmental degradation deepens by Elizabeth Bryant, Earth Times News Service, 8 July 1996.
[5]Michael T. McGeehin. Geography 103-Lucky Yapa, 2004.