The Gettysburg Address, by Abraham Lincoln
The Norton Reader (p. 561)
Themes and textual analysis
Lincoln used the word "nation" five times (four times when he referred to the American nation, and one time when he referred to "any nation so conceived and so dedicated"), but never the word "union," which might refer only to the North—furthermore, restoring the nation, not a union of sovereign states, was paramount to his intention. Lincoln's text referred to the year 1776 and the American Revolutionary War, and included the famous words of the Declaration of Independence, that "all men are created equal."
Lincoln did not allude to the 1789 Constitution, which implicitly recognized slavery in the "three-fifths compromise," and he avoided using the word "slavery". He also made no mention of the contentious antebellum political issues of nullification or state's rights. In Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words that Remade America, Garry Wills suggests the Address was influenced by the American Greek Revival and the classical funereal oratory of Athens, as well as the transcendentalism of Unitarian minister and abolitionist Theodore Parker (the source of the phrase "of all the people, by all the people, for all the people") and the constitutional arguments of Daniel Webster.
Author and Civil War scholar James McPherson's review of Wills' book addresses the parallels to Pericles' funeral oration during the Peloponnesian War as described by Thucydides, and enumerates several striking comparisons with Lincoln's speech.[ Pericles' speech, like Lincoln's, begins with an acknowledgment of revered predecessors: "I shall begin with our ancestors: it is both just and proper that they should have the honour of the first mention on an occasion like the present"; then praises the uniqueness of the State's commitment to democracy: "If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private differences"; honors the sacrifice of the slain, "Thus choosing to die resisting, rather than to live submitting, they fled only from dishonour, but met danger face to face"; and exhorts the living to continue the struggle: "You, their survivors, must determine to have as unfaltering a resolution in the field, though you may pray that it may have a happier issue."
Craig R. Smith, in "Criticism of Political Rhetoric and Disciplinary Integrity", also suggested the influence of Webster's famous speeches on the view of government expressed by Lincoln in the Gettysburg Address, specifically, Webster's "Second Reply to Hayne", in which he states, "This government, Sir, is the independent offspring of the popular will. It is not the creature of State legislatures; nay, more, if the whole truth must be told, the people brought it into existence, established it, and have hitherto supported it, for the very purpose, amongst others, of imposing certain salutary restraints on State sovereignties."
Some have noted Lincoln's usage of the imagery of birth, life, and death in reference to a nation "brought forth," "conceived," and that shall not "perish." Others, including author Allen C. Guelzo, suggested that Lincoln's formulation "four score and seven" was an allusion to the King James Bible's Psalms 90:10, in which man's lifespan is given as "threescore years and ten."
Writer H. L. Mencken criticized what he believed to be Lincoln's central argument, that Union soldiers at Gettysburg "sacrificed their lives to the cause of self-determination." Mencken contended, "It is difficult to imagine anything more untrue. The Union soldiers in the battle actually fought against self-determination; it was the Confederates who fought for the right of their people to govern themselves."Certainly, however, one can point out the obvious difference between the right of personal self-determination and the right of communal self-governance. Arguably, the Union soldiers fought for the former, while the Confederates fought for the latter.
Practice analyzing this text using SOAPS technique
S / Subject- General topic, content, and ideascontained in the text; be able to state the
subject in a short phrase.
O / Occasion - Time &and place of a piece; it is
important to under- stand the context that
encouraged the writing to happen
A / Audience - Group of readers to whom the piece is directed; it may
be one person, a small group, or a large group; it may be a certain
person or a certain people; an understanding of the characteristics
of the audience leads to a higher level of understanding.
P / Purpose - Reason behind the text; without a grasp
of purpose, it is impossible to examine the argument
or logic of the piece.
S / Speaker -Voice that tells the story; the author may be the
speaker, or non-fiction article is carefully planned and structured,
and it is within that plan and structure that meaning is discovered
Form from Dr. Jon Kaiser, AP Consultant
“In a very reverent, yet quick, address, Abraham Lincoln not only honorably bestows a farewell to the soldiers who gave their lives for the livelihood of their country, but through his rhetorical usage of juxtaposition, repetition, and parallelism, Lincoln unites his speech together, and this in turn transfers into his central message of unity as a nation. Lincoln’s usage of juxtaposition, the comparison of two ideas, gives life to how two completely different ideas, the North and the South, should become one, just as he juxtaposes life and death under the same pen. The main purpose of juxtaposition is to place two ideas or phrases which may be completely opposite such as the “living and dead,” together and allow the reader to see them side by side. Lincoln goes the extra step and conveys his juxtaposed ideals to coincide with his uniting tone.
Two concrete examples of repetition lie in the opening statement of Lincoln’s speech, both of which set a precedent for the repetitious nature of the entire address. One of these clearly outweighs the other, but repetition in general is used to tie the entire piece together under common diction, such as “we,” “our,” “us.” Additionally, the word “dedicated” appears several times, not only to tie the paragraphs together, but to also appeal to pathos, or emotional appeal. Though the word dedicated does convey this message, the inclusive choice of pronouns end up leaving the lasting impression on the reader. The word “I” is absent, as well as the word “you.” But to include all the people, North and South, Lincoln utilizes we, us and our to group the nation as a whole under a common address. Because of the high emotions in the audience, because of the “table-turning” battle at Gettysburg, Lincoln plays on these emotions by never excluding a single American citizen. Finally, through parallelism and asyndeton, the final bit of his address, which is still quoted today, “of the people, by the people, and for the people,” represents the Preamble of the Constitution, which originally assisted in weaving this great nation together, This appeal to ethos demonstrates how even at the time of the Constitution, our founding fathers were divided, they still came together under a single parchment of paper, very similar to Lincoln’s address.
Practice AP Style Multiple-Choice questions:
1. The first sentence of the Gettysburg Address serves which of the following purposes? a.) it makes an assertion that will be qualified
later b.) it forges a link with past events and ideals c.) it presents support for a claim to be stated later
d.) it indicates that the speech will be a brief one e.) it makes reference to a previous speech
2. The diction of the piece supports imagery relating to which of the following? I. spirituality. II. New beginnings. III. Duty.
a.) I only b.) II and III only c.) I and II only d.) I and III only e.) I, II, and III
3. Which of the following is included in the speech? a.) a declarative sentence, b.) a sentence fragment,
c.) an imperative sentence d.) a periodic sentence e.) an interrogative sentence
4. In the second paragraph Lincoln appeals to which of the following? I Ethos II Pathos III Logos
a.) I only b.) I and II only c.) II and III only d.) III only e.) I, II, and III
5. The phrase “we cannot hallow” serves which of the following purposes?
a.) it extends the meaning of “dedicate” to a more spiritual dimension b.)it reverses the strict meaning first given through “dedicate”
c.) it limits the broad implications suggested by the word “consecrate” d.) it anticipates and undermines objections to the meaning of
“consecrate” e.) it defuses the religious connotation associated with “consecrate”
6. The address develops contrasts between each of the following EXCEPT . . . ?
a.) black and white, b.) words and deeds, c.) life and death, d.) past and present, e.) conflict and rest
7. Lincoln employs each of the following rhetorical devices EXCEPT . . . ?
a.) alliteration, b.) anaphora, c.) antithesis, d.) asyndeton, e.) apostrophe
8. In the address the speaker appeals to each of the following EXCEPT . . . ?
a.) equality, b.) sacrifice, c.) ambition, d.) security, e.) gratitude
9. The tone of the address is one of . . . ?
a.) pedantic solemnity, b.) querulous seriousness, c.) melancholy resignation d.) hopeful reverence, e.) sanguine reflection
Practice AP Essay Questions:
Rhetorical Analysis: In a well-organized essay, analyze the rhetorical strategies that Lincoln uses to achieve his purpose. (yes, the writer
must clearly identify the “purpose” to answer this question. Mrs. C)
Quote by American transcendentalist writer Theodore Parker, whose writings influenced Lincoln – quote made in 1852:
Our national ideal out-travels our experience, and all experience. We began our national career by setting all history at defiance –
for that said, “A republic on a large scale cannot exist.” Our progress since has shown that we were right in refusing to be limited
by the past. The political ideals of the nation are transcendent, not empirical. Human history could not justify the Declaration of
Independence and its large statements of the new idea: the nation went behind history and appealed to human nature.
Argument: With Parker’s statement in mind (see above), read the Gettysburg Address and decide whether Lincoln supports Parker’s
assertion that “the political ideals of the nation are transcendent, not empirical.” Write an essay supporting your position.
Use evidence from Lincoln’s text and from your knowledge of history as support.
Argument: With Parker’s statement in mind (see above), write an essay in which you argue whether in the Gettysburg Address, Lincoln
“sent behind human history and appealed to human nature.” As support, use evidence from Lincoln’s speech and from your
knowledge of history.
Multiple Choice Answers: 1.) B, 2.) E, 3.) A, 4.) E, 5.) A, 6.) A, 7.) E, 8.)C, 9.) D