Table 2Outcome measures of studies reporting associations between dietary antioxidant intake and cognition

Study / Outcome measure: cognition function / Predictor: antioxidant intake measures
Domain assessed / Tool/ criteria used / Dietary antioxidant examined / Measure used
Cross-sectional
Goodwin et al. (1983) [40] / Verbal fluency
Abstract thinking & problem-solving / Russell revision of the Wechsler Memory Test
Halstead-Reitan Categories Test / Vitamin C, E / 3-day WFR
Jama et al. (1996) [27] / Global cognition / MMSE / Vitamin C, E, ß-carotene / FFQ
Ortega et al. (1997) [37] / Global cognition / MMSE, PMSQ / Extensive dietary analyses, including antioxidants: vitamin C, E, ß-carotene / 7-day WFR
FFQ
Peacock et al. (2000) [35] / Verbal learning, memory
Psychomotor function
Verbal fluency / Delayed Word Recall test
WAIS-R Digit Symbol subtest
Word Fluency test / Carotenoids, vitamin C, vitamin E / 61-item FFQ
Medication survey to measure supplemental intakes
Lee et al. (2001) [36] / Global cognition / MMSE-K / Extensive dietary analyses, including antioxidants: vitamin A, C, / 24 hour dietary recall
Sato et al. (2006) [38] / Global cognition
Psychomotor function / MMSE
DSST / Vitamin C / 60-item FFQ
McNeill et al. (2011) [24] / Global cognition
IQ (at age 11)
Pre-morbid intelligence
Verbal fluency
Memory, processing speed, general intelligence / MMSE
Moray House Test,
National Adult Reading test
Word Fluency test
WAIS and WMS subtests / ß-carotene, vitamin C and / 168-item FFQ
Butchart et al. (2011) [23] / Global cognition
IQ (at age 11)
Pre-morbid intelligence
Verbal fluency
Memory, processing speed, general intelligence / MMSE
Moray House Test,
National Adult Reading test
Word Fluency test
WAIS and WMS subtests / Flavonoid subclasses, flavonoid-rich food and drinks (total fruit intake, total vegetable intake, apples, citrus fruits, tea, chocolate, red wine) / 168-item FFQ
Longitudinal
Studies of Global Cognition
Gale et al. (1996) [43] / Global cognition / Hodkinson abbreviated mental test / Vitamin C / 7-day WFR
Kalmijn et al. (1997) [32] / Global cognition / MMSE / Flavonoids, ß-carotene, vitamins C and E / Cross-check dietary history method (interview regarding usual food consumption during preceding 2-4 weeks)
La Rue et al. (1997) [39] / Abstract reasoning
Verbal memory
Non-verbal memory
Visuospatial skills & non-verbal memory / Abstraction Scale
Logical Memory subtest, WMS
Visual Reproduction subtest, WMS
Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure test / Vitamin A, C, E, / 3-day diet records
Paleologos et al. (1998) [34] / Global cognition
Category fluency
Verbal fluency / MMSE
Reid brief neuropsychological screen
Animals test
F, A, S test of verbal fluency / Vitamin C - compared 3 groups: nonusers of supplements with low dietary vitamin C intakes, non-users of supplements with high dietary vitamin C intakes; users of vitamin C supplements with high dietary vitamin C intakes / FFQ
Studies of Dementia risk
Commenges et al. (2000) [28] / Global cognition
Dementia / MMSE
Clinical evaluation / Flavonoids, vitamin C / 3-day food diary, 20-category FFQ
Morris et al. (2002) [30] / AD / Clinical evaluation, brain imaging / Vitamin C, E, ß-carotene / 139-item FFQ (1.7y after baseline)
Engelhart et al. (2002) [26] / Global cognition
Dementia, AD / MMSE, GMS, CAMDEX
Clinical evaluation / Flavonoids, vitamin C, E, ß-carotene / Dietary checklist, 170-item FFQ
Corrada et al. (2002) [41] / Global cognition
AD / Dementia Questionnaire
Clinical evaluation / Vitamin C, E, carotenoids, / 7-day dietary record
Luchsinger et al. (2003) [42] / Global cognition
AD / Clinical Dementia Rating Scale
Clinical evaluation / ß-carotene, vitamins C and E / 61-item FFQ
Laurin et al. (2004) [33] / Global cognition
Dementia, AD, VaD / Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument
Clinical evaluation, brain imaging / Flavonoids, ß-carotene, vitamins C and E / 24-hour dietary recall (ß- carotene, vitamins C and E
Tea intake (flavonoids)
Morris et al. (2005) [31] / AD
Global cognition
Verbal episodic & logical memory
Scanning and tracking, information processing speed, attention / Clinical evaluation, +/- brain imaging MMSE
East Boston Tests of Immediate & Delayed Recall
Symbol Digit Modalities test / Vitamin E, α-tocopherol equivalents, individual tocopherols / 139-item FFQ (1.2y after baseline)
Letenneur et al. (2007) [29] / Global cognition
Visual memory
Verbal fluency
Visuospatial attention
Reasoning & attention
Dementia, AD, VaD / MMSE
Benton’s Visual Retention test
Isaacs Set test
Cancellation test
Digit Symbol test
Clinical evaluation / Flavonoids / 3-day food diary, 20-category FFQ
Devore et al. (2010) [25] / Global cognition
Dementia, AD / MMSE, GMS, CAMDEX
Clinical evaluation, +/- brain imaging / Flavonoids, vitamin C, E, ß-carotene / Dietary checklist, 170-item FFQ

ADAlzheimer’s Disease, CAMDEX Cambridge Examination of Mental Disorders in the Elderly, DSMIII-R Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition Revised, DSST Digit-Symbol Substitution test, FFQ food frequency questionnaire,GMS Geriatric Mental State schedule, MMSE Mini-Mental State Examination, MMSE-K Mini-Mental State Examination for Koreans, PMSQ Pfeiffer’s Mental Status Questionnaire, VaD vascular dementia, WAIS Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, WFR weighed food record, WMS Wechsler Memory Scale

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