Students with Visual Impairments
and Learning Disabilities
TETN #30911
January 14, 2009
Presented by
Marnee Loftin, School Psychologist, TSBVI
and
Cyral Miller, Outreach Director, TSBVI Outreach
Sample Wording for Recommending Audio Assisted Reading
from Ike Presley
_____ should begin to develop skills necessary for audio assisted reading. This can be partially accomplished through the steps below. He/she will need to start this training within the next year.
_____ will need to be provided with training in the use of a modified tape recorder/player or a digital talking book player (DTB) and in the development of refined listening skills.
The teacher will need to begin with materials of high interest to _____. The teacher will need to record these reading materials and make up questions covering the content of the passages. Before listening to the recording _____ should be provided a braille/large print copy of the questions and read them, or have the questions read to him/her.
In the beginning, the questions should be in sequential order. While listening to the tape he/she should stop it when he/she hears the answer to the first question and then write or tell the teacher the answer.
Once _____ becomes comfortable with this activity, the teacher will want to point out to _____ what types of questions are generally being asked. He/she will need to be made aware of the Who, What, When, Where, How and Why type question that lead to the important information in the passage.
After _____ masters this skill the teacher will provide the questions for additional passages in a non-sequential order. Upon mastery of non-sequentially ordered questions _____ will be ready to move on to longer reading passages. Each time _____ moves on to longer reading passages the questions should return to sequential order until he/she masters the longer passages such as short magazine articles.
Once _____ has mastered these short articles he/she will be ready to move on to more formal reading materials. Passages recorded by the teacher should be indexed so that they can be used to teach _____ how to locate certain passages.
At the next level, the teacher should acquire a reading skills building series such as the old Barnell-Loft series entitled “Specific Skills Series” or its modern equivalent. These reading series are good because they cover numerous levels and various reading skills, the questions, and sequencing have already been created and they are available from RFB&D.
Other materials that will be of great assistance in teaching audio assisted reading may be borrowed from reading teachers and LD teachers. Materials used for regular reading can be easily modified for audio assisted reading. Some of these materials may already be available on tape/CD or can easily be recorded by volunteers or the Recordings for the Blind and Dyslexic.
After working with these types of materials for a while, passages from textbooks can be introduced. In an effort to make a smooth transition, I suggest that you begin with a chapter of science or social studies, etc. that the student has just completed in class. This ensures that the student will be listening to somewhat familiar material. Once this is mastered the student is then ready to begin listening to current passages in their textbooks.
All through this process, it is essential that the teacher work with _____ at each new stage of the process. It is very important that the student have daily assignments that will help develop these audio assisted reading skills. Once the student demonstrates some competency with the current stage, the teacher can give the student assignments to be done on days when the teacher is not present, or for homework.
After the student becomes comfortable with audio assisted reading it may be helpful to allow them to read along with short passages. While listening to these materials, _____ can follow along in the print/large print/braille copy if possible.
To acquire these skills _____ will need to be provided with a modified tape player/recorder or digital talking book player, which can be used to access printed information, and later on for note taking. The recorder should have as many of the following features as possible:
- 4-track play
- 2 track record
- 4 track record
- 15/16 & 1 7/8 play and record
- variable speed playback
- external microphone jack
- external microphone
- internal/external tone indexing
- cue and review feature
- speaker
- earphone jack
- internal microphone
- variable pitch control
- AC adapter
- rechargeable batteries
Learning Disabilities
From pps.. 382-386 • Instructional StrategiesMaking Evaluation Meaningful
Instructional Strategies to Increase Fluency (ability to read text quickly, accurately and with expression).
General information
Fluent readers focus attention on understanding
Non-fluent readers focus attention on decoding, not comprehension
Fluency building should be done on the student's independent, not instructional reading level
Guidelines for building fluency
Check for requisite skills: ability to identify names and sounds of letters; ability to read phonetically regular words; ability to recognize a few sight words
Calculate fluency rate so progress can be monitored
Choose appropriate texts: decodable, independent level, reflect the student's interests
Model fluent reading by reading to the student 10-20 minutes with expression (phrasing, intonation) while the student follows along
Use specific teaching strategies such as:
Partner reading - The teacher, parent or another student reads for about 3 minutes modeling good phrasing and intonation while the student follows along - the two readers then read the same passage together for another 2 minutes - the struggling reader then reads the passage
Tape assisted reading - Short passages (or sections of a passage) are tape-recorded and the struggling reader follows along with the tape for repeated practice
Chunking - To emphasize that connected text is divided into meaningful phrases, divide sentences into phrases by using slash marks or more spaces - this allows the student to read shorter chunks of words, then put them together
Phrase card reading - Similar to chunking, phrases are written on index cards - after reading the phrases several times for mastery, the phrases are then combined to make a complete sentence
Repeated readings - Reading poetry is an excellent way to reinforce fluency by practicing a poem for class presentation - it is recommended that Poetry Parties be held to practice these repeated readings - Readers Theatre isanother excellent way to approach repeated readings - this is an activity in which each student has a portion of a passage to present to the rest of the group - it facilitates fluency by giving each student many opportunities to practice their portion of the presentation - the students can switch scripts and practice with other passages
Instructional Strategies to Increase Comprehension (ability to gain meaning from text).
General information
A wide variety of reading (variety of topics and texts) should be provided
Development of extensive vocabulary should be addressed - simply being able to read a word is not enough - the student must also know what the word means and be able to use it in context
A variety of comprehension strategies should be utilized
The generation of questions after reading supports comprehension
Guidelines for increasing comprehension
Before reading
Read the title and activate background knowledge about topic
Teach unfamiliar vocabulary
Establish purpose for reading - for fun or learning
Preview text - cover, title, text, structure, and picture
During reading
Use questioning techniques (types of questions from simple recall to more complex analysis of text)
Use graphic organizers - fill in as you read (these can be done in outline form for Braille readers)
Use self-monitoring techniques by asking: Does this make sense to me? Do I know what all the words mean? Can I predict what will happen next?
Use fix-up strategies - re-read problem words/sentences; retell in own words; read ahead a few sentences to use context; connect to previous knowledge
After reading
Use questioning techniques - Who or what was this story about? - What was the most important event? What was the main idea? - answer who, what, where, when, why and how questions
Review vocabulary - look up any words still not understood
Summarize - Write a summary of ten words or less
Complete and revise graphic organizers
Adapted from: Effective Instruction for Elementary Struggling Readers Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired, Special Education Reading Project (SERP). University of Texas at Austin, College of Education (2003).
Instructional Strategies for Writing (ability to construct compositions)
General information
Students should be encouraged to experiment with writing
Students should have daily opportunities for writing many kinds of texts such as lists, messages to others, poems and stories
Students should be allowed to write about topics that are personally meaningful
Students should have a bank of words they can use in writing endeavors
Students should be taught spelling strategies
Students need to learn to revise and edit their own writing
Guidelines for developing writing skills
The following mnemonic can be used to assist the student in remembering the components of effective writing:
P - pick a topic or subject
L - list information you want to include (can use graphic organizers)
E - evaluate the list for completeness and proper sequencing
A - activate your writing with a topic sentence
S - supply supporting sentences and details
E - end with a concluding sentence or statement
This can be used when writing a simple paragraph as well as an extended story or report.
Another useful mnemonic can be used for revising and editing writing to check for essential elements:
C - capitalization
O - organization and overall appearance
P - punctuation
S - spelling
Instructional Strategies for Increasing Mathematical Abilities
General information
Learning disabilities in math and the effects they have on development can vary widely and involve language difficulties, visual-spatial confusion, sequencing problems and long-term memory difficulties
Since learning disabilities in math may revolve around using language, specific math vocabulary must be explicitly and extensively taught
Guidelines for developing math abilities
Provide experience with concrete materials because pictorial representations often confuse these students
Introduce new skills by using many opportunities to practice with concrete examples before moving to abstract uses
Verbal explanations must be completely accurate and concrete, with as few elaboration's as possible
Allow adequate processing time
Allow use of facts charts
Permit the student to demonstrate understanding using objects or pencil marks
Provide small increments of instruction rather than longer sessions - two twenty minute sessions every day are more beneficial than an hour long session every other day
Teach concepts in small segments
Verbal information should be broken into smaller steps instead of all at once - present concepts, give directions, ask questions, offer explanations
Request that the student frequently verbalize what they are doing
Turn lined paper sideways to serve as columns for organizing work
Offer strategies for remembering and working through the sequence of steps in solving problems, such as mnemonics or organizers
Allow use of a large type or talking calculator
Summary of Suggested Procedures for Determination of Learning Disabilities in a Student with a Visual Impairment
Cognitive Abilities
1. Testing that is current within the past 12 months.
2. Testing that reflects all adaptations and modifications that are considered to be appropriate for students with blindness or visual impairments.
3. Results of testing reflect the scatter of skills in particular cognitive areas that is typical for any student with a learning disability. Specific strengths as well as weaknesses should be apparent upon reviewing the profile.
4. Results should reflect a level of performance that seems to be with observation of student in a variety of settings.
Provision of Appropriate Educational Experiences
1. The school records should indicate that the student has attended school regularly (i.e., excessive absences have not been noted because of health concerns such as surgeries, and treatments).
2. The ARD committee determines that the student has received appropriate and adequate instruction in techniques specified in a current (within 12 months), Functional Vision Evaluation/Learning Media Assessment.
3. There is no data to suggest that other disabilities such as emotional disturbance, autism/pervasive developmental disorders, or mental retardation are contributing to the difficulties in learning.
4. School records indicate a consistent pattern of difficulty in specific academic areas over a period of at least two years. These difficulties do not seem to be related to patterns of absence because of illness, changes in medium, or significant changes in vision.
5. These patterns of difficulty do not reflect an overall pattern of low achievement in academic areas.
Informal Educational Data
1. Work samples indicate poor independent achievement of academic tasks at the expected level. This difficulty is also manifested in poor completion of homework assignments as well as grades on tests. This pattern is consistent rather than variable from day to day.
2. Observation of the student on at least two occasions in the classroom suggests that the student is attending in class and that the difficulties are not associated with problems in behavior.
3. Observation of the student in the classroom indicates that independent work is difficult regardless of the teacher/student ratio. Performance is improved when the teacher provides additional assistance. However, performance is still significantly below what might be expected.
4. Review of student portfolio suggests problem in basic organizational skills that is often associated with learning disabilities as well as confirms the difficulty in independent completion of activities in the specific academic area.
Standardized Assessment and Data
If available, information from standardized testing confirms difficulty with a specific academic area. Again, assurances should confirm that all recommended modifications were in place when testing occurred.
Individual Testing of Academic Skills
In contrast to traditional methods of determining learning disabilities, no single academic test is available that will adequately evaluate academic skills of a student with a visual impairment. In addition, the problems of determining learning disabilities prior to Grade 3 are compounded in the visually impaired. The reliance on visual stimuli in virtually all academic measures prior to Grade 3 makes these tests inappropriate for young students with visual impairments.
To determine the presence of learning disabilities in a student with a visual impairment, it is recommended that any testing occur no sooner than the fourth grade. This ensures an adequate basis of educational experiences, as well as training in disability specific skills. The range of educational instruments that can be used to measure academic skills that are of concern also increases.
Prior to testing of academic skills, the evaluation professional should consult with the TVI to determine specific procedures for evaluation. The evaluation professional must administer an individual intelligence test at the time of testing for learning disabilities. Modifications must be made in procedures as recommended in earlier materials.
Selection of an instrument for evaluation of educational performance should be based upon the specific area of concern. As specified by IDEA/IDEIA, these concerns include oral expression, listening comprehension, written comprehension, basic reading skills, reading comprehension, mathematics calculation, and mathematics reasoning.
Selection of the specific instrument for instruction should be a joint decision between the evaluation professional and the TVI. This decision must consider the age and current performance level of the student, visual efficiency and acuity of the student, and recommended medium and modifications. At that time the two professionals should determine the extent to which the TVI should be involved in the evaluation process. For example, the TVI should be responsible for administration and scoring of the Writing subtests for any Braille reader. Determination of responsible persons for other academic areas can be based upon mutual consensus between the two.
Instruments that have subtests that have proved most efficient for measuring educational skills include portions of the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement (III), Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, and Diagnostic Achievement Battery. Although each of these tests have subtests that are inappropriate for the student with a visual impairment, each test also has subtests that yield important information. Please see the overview for specific information about each of the tests and subtests. When this is supplemented with other information as described above, an ARD Committee is able to make a decision regarding the presence of a learning disability in a student with a visual impairment.
Evaluation for a learning disability in a student with a visual impairment is a difficult task. However, it is also an important one that can be accomplished with a strong multi-disciplinary team approach. The process is more time consuming than the more typical discrepancy model that is used with most students who have a learning disability. For the student who continues to struggle with academic tasks in spite of multiple modifications for visual impairments as well as strong support from a TVI, this procedure seems to be an effort that is well worth the time involved.
Checklist for Determining and Documenting Learning Disabilities in Students with Visual Impairments
Determine Intellectual Ability
Testing is current (within 12 months)
Testing reflects appropriate VI modifications and adaptations
Testing reflects specific pattern of strengths and weaknesses on subtests
Test results are consistent with observations of student
Review Appropriateness of Educational Experiences
Student has had regular school attendance
Instruction has been consistent with modifications in Functional Vision Evaluation/LMA