Water Management: the use of stars in Oman
Submitted by Harriet Nash
to the University of Exeter as a
thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in Arab and Islamic Studies,
February 2009
in accordance with the requirements for the degree of PhD
This thesis is available for library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement.
I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University.
ABSTRACT
Ancient settlements in Oman are frequently found where crops can be cultivated with groundwater distributed to fields by gravity flow. These irrigation systems are called aflāj (s. falaj), and they are still pivotal to community life: in 1997 over 3000 such systems were still in use. The allocation of falaj water among farmers traditionally depended on the use of the sun and the stars to track the passage of time. This practice, and particularly the use of stars, is disappearing rapidly: the availability of watches since c. 1970 means that there is now little technical reason to use the stars.
The study records fast disappearing information on the ethnography of agricultural communities in northern Oman and, in particular, on the use of stars. It aims to identify the stars used and record the methods of stargazing in sufficient detail that the systems could be replicated if all local knowledge were lost. It also aims to raise awareness and improve the understanding of the significance of the traditional use of the stars in irrigated agriculture. This aspect of the cultural heritage of the region has not been written about previously in such detail.
The research questions concern how, where and why stars are still used.
There are several documents on falaj building and organisation in Oman, but relatively little on telling the time, and much less on the stars than on the use of the sun. The available documents were reviewed, but the main source for this study is data collected in the field, interviewing falaj managers and stargazers and watching the stars with them. Field work was carried out in different seasons since the stars used vary through the year. International experts were consulted on various aspects of the work, including Daniel Varisco on folk astronomy and Paul Kunitzsch on star names.
The study focuses on five settlements where stars are used to this day. These are Qarya Beni Subh (Qarya), close to the mountains near the town of Al Hamra in the Interior Region; Al Fath, Zahib, Sudayra and Barzaman near the towns of Mudaybi and Sinaw in the Eastern Region. Additional information was obtained from a few other places for comparison, and during the course of the research it was found that only about eight of three thousand active falaj communities still use stars for time keeping.
The methods of stargazing are given in detail, together with the names of the stars in Oman and their international classification where possible. It was found that the number of stars, the stars used, and their names in Oman vary from place to place. The time that each star represents is more variable than expected from the difference in length of night during the year. The stars used for falaj purposes are compared with those used in the region for navigation and with the stations of the moon of the Islamic calendar, but no evidence of any link between them was identified. On the basis of the history of falaj systems in Oman, the star names and the stars used, at least two of which are from the pre-Islamic Bedu tradition, it is concluded that the system of stargazing for timing water dates from pre-Islamic times, before the introduction of the stations of the moon.
The main reason for the continued use of stars by a few communities, even though wristwatches are now widely available, is thought to be adherence to tradition both for its own sake and to avoid disputes over the sharing of water. It is considered unlikely that this ancient practice will survive more than 10 or 20 years unless the younger generation takes an interest in learning, and putting into practice, the traditions of their forefathers.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS 4
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
1 INTRODUCTION 10
1.1 Statement of purpose 10
1.2 Organisation of the thesis 10
1.3 System of transliteration of Arabic words 11
1.4 Abbreviations 13
1.5 Acknowledgements 14
2 OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH 18
2.1 Geographical setting 18
2.2 Objectives and significance of the research 20
2.3 Study areas and their selection 21
2.4 Method of collecting information 23
2.5 Tools for data collection and interpretation 26
2.6 Methods of interpretation 27
2.7 Programme of study 28
3 OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 31
3.1 Books, articles and theses 31
3.1.1 Origin and diffusion of aflāj 32
3.1.2 Construction of aflāj 32
3.1.3 Organisation and management of aflāj 32
3.1.4 History of astronomy 33
3.1.5 Time keeping in traditional falaj management 33
3.1.6 Other uses of stars 34
3.1.7 Star names 34
3.1.8 Traditional rulings 35
3.2 Manuscripts, star lists and star charts 36
4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 38
5 ASTRONOMY AND TIME KEEPING 40
5.1 Introduction 40
5.2 Identification of stars 40
5.2.1 Position relative to other stars 40
5.2.2 Location 41
5.2.3 Brightness, variability and colour 42
5.3 Stars and time 43
5.4 Stars for navigation 45
5.4.1 Navigation on land 45
5.4.2 Navigation at sea 46
5.5 Stars in agricultural activities 47
5.6 Stations of the moon 50
5.7 Falaj time keeping 51
5.7.1 Water clocks 51
5.7.2 Sundials 52
6 THE FALAJ SYSTEM IN OMAN 55
6.1 Aflāj and their different types 55
6.2 History of falaj construction 58
6.3 Falaj water use 60
6.3.1 The principle of sharing falaj water 60
6.3.2 Order of water use 61
6.4 Significance of falaj water to agriculture 64
6.5 Falaj organisation 65
6.5.1 Falaj management 65
6.5.7 Timing of water shares 67
7 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY AREAS 69
7.1 Al Hamra area 69
7.1.1 Background information on the Al Hamra area 69
7.1.2 Data collection in the Al Hamra area 73
7.2 Mudaybi area 74
7.2.1 Background information on the Mudaybi area 74
7.2.2 Data collection in the Mudaybi area 77
8 STARGAZING IN THE QARYA AREA 79
8.1 Introduction 79
8.2 Falaj organisation in the Qarya area 83
8.3 Method of stargazing in the Qarya area 91
8.4 Names of the stars in the Qarya area and the time they represent 95
8.4.1 Stars used in Qarya 95
8.4.2 Stars formerly used in Misfa 101
8.4.3 Stars formerly used in Al Hamra 102
8.4.4 Stars formerly used in Qala 109
8.5 Star pairs, constellations and star lore in the Qarya area 110
9 BARZAMAN 114
9.1 Introduction 114
9.2 Organisation of the falaj at Barzaman 116
9.3 Method of stargazing in Barzaman 122
9.4 Names of the stars in Barzaman and the time they represent 125
10 SUDAYRA 129
10.1 Introduction 129
10.2 Organisation of the falaj in Sudayra 129
10.3 Method of stargazing in Sudayra 132
10.4 Star names in Sudayra 133
10.5 Other uses / tales about stars in Sudayra 137
11 AL FATH 138
11.1 Introduction 138
11.2 Organisation of the falaj in Al Fath 138
11.3 Falaj stars and method of stargazing in Al Fath 143
12 ZAHIB 155
12.1 Introduction 155
12.2 Organisation of the falaj in Zahib 155
12.3 Star names in Zahib 161
12.4 Method of stargazing in Zahib 163
13 DISCUSSION 173
13.1 Falaj organisation 173
13.2 Documentation 174
13.3 Identification of stars 178
13.4 Methods of stargazing 178
13.5 Selection of stars 180
13.6 Falaj stars and their names 188
14 CONCLUSIONS 199
14.1 Approach taken and research questions 199
14.2 How farmers use the stars 200
14.3 Where and why are stars still used? 201
14.4 Resolution of disputes and record keeping 203
14.5 Summary and the way forward 203
APPENDICES 205
Appendix A Star lists and names 206
Appendix B Use of the term qaḍiyān in Mudaybi 218
Appendix C Months of the Islamic calendar 220
Glossary of falaj terms used in this study 221
Bibliography of cited works 222
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Programme of study 30
Table 3.1 Literature sources 31
Table 5.1 The relationship of star colour to surface temperature 43
Table 5.2 Stars in Hesiod’s Works and Days 48
Table 5.3 Anwā’ star markers 49
Table 5.4 Stations of the moon 50-51
Table 7.1 Basic statistics on Qarya and nearby settlements 71
Table 7.2 People interviewed in the area of Al Hamra 73
Table 7.3 Basic statistics for the four aflāj near Mudaybi 74
Table 7.4 People interviewed in the Mudaybi area 78
Table 8.1 Use of stars and sundial in settlements near Qarya 80
Table 8.2 Officials concerned with falaj organisation in Qarya 2007 83
Table 8.3 Early falaj water ownership in Qarya 86
Table 8.4 Main owners of falaj water rights in Qarya in 2006 87
Table 8.5 Summary of falaj finances in Qarya for 2004 90
Table 8.6 Main falaj stars identified in Qarya 96
Table 8.7 Falaj stars identified in Qarya and their timings 98
Table 8.8 Stars formerly used for time keeping in Misfa 102
Table 8.9 Modern schedule of main stars formerly used in Al Hamra 104
Table 8.10 Identification of stars used in Al Hamra 107-108
Table 8.11 Main stars formerly used in Qala 109
Table 8.12 Star pairs in the Qarya area 110
Table 9.1 Falaj officials in Barzaman 117
Table 9.2 Summary of falaj finances in Barazaman c. 2006 122
Table 9.3 Falaj stars identified in Barzaman 126
Table 10.1 Falaj stars identified in Sudayra 135
Table 11.1 Al Fath falaj officials 138
Table 11.2 Major water shares in Al Fath 141
Table 11.3 Falaj stars identified in Al Fath 144
Table 11.4 Stars watched in Al Fath 148
Table 12.1 Zahib falaj officials 155
Table 12.2 Summary of annual falaj finances in Zahib 161
Table 12.3 Falaj stars identified in Zahib 162
Table 12.4 Indicator stars used in Zahib 166
Table 13.1 Comparison of stars in the study areas 182
Table 13.2 Agricultural sayings related to stars 187
Table 13.3 Written sources and treatment of falaj star names from the literature given in Table 13.4 189
Table 13.4 Stars lists recorded in the literature from other villages
in Oman 190
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Location of Oman and distribution of aflāj 19
Figure 2.2 Study areas for investigation of stargazing in Oman 22
Figure 2.3 Introduction to village elders in Misfa 24
Figure 4.1 Conceptual framework 39
Figure 5.1 The celestial sphere 42
Figure 5.2 Navigational stars in the Indian Ocean 46
Figure 5.3 Water clock in Yazd Water Museum 53
Figure 5.4 Folio 1 from Falaj al-cAzīzī falaj book 53
Figure 5.5 Sundial at Qarya showing the path traced
by the pole’s shadow 54
Figure 6.1 Falaj types 57
Figure 6.2 Order of falaj water use 63
Figure 6.3 Water use in agriculture in Oman in 1997 65
Figure 7.1 Locations of aflāj in the Al Hamra area 70
Figure 7.2 Falaj flow in the Al Hamra area 72
Figure 7.3 Locations of aflāj in the Mudaybi area 75
Figure 7.4 Falaj flow in the Mudaybi area 76
Figure 8.1 Layout of Qarya 81
Figure 8.2 Water use on Falaj al-Kalbay 82
Figure 8.3 Rotation of water shares in Qarya 84
Figure 8.4 The sundial at Qarya 85
Figure 8.5 Document for sale of water in Qarya 88
Figure 8.6 Auction of falaj water in Qarya 89
Figure 8.7 Qarya falaj accounts book 90
Figure 8.8 Horizon used for stargazing at Qarya looking east 92
Figure 8.9 Rashid bin Khamis Al-Subhi, stargazer in Qarya 92
Figure 8.10 Horizon and towers used for watching stars in Misfa 94
Figure 8.11 Example of star and athar divisions in Qarya:
Kuwī to al-Mūfī 99
Figure 8.12 Falaj stars identified in Qarya 100
Figure 8.13 Folio 1 from manuscript on stars used in Al Hamra 105
Figure 8.14 Al-Mīyathāb (leaping) in Qarya 111
Figure 9.1 Layout of Barzaman 115
Figure 9.2 The mughsila at Barzaman 116
Figure 9.3 Rotation of water shares in Barzaman 118
Figure 9.4 The wakīl’s notes, Barzaman 119
Figure 9.5 Sundial at Barzaman 120
Figure 9.6 Document from Barzaman detailing water rights 121
Figure 9.7 The stargazing point in Barzaman 123
Figure 9.8 Looking for star markers in Barzaman 123
Figure 9.9 The method of stargazing in Barzaman 124
Figure 9.10 Falaj stars identified in Barzaman 127
Figure 10.1 Layout of Sudayra 130
Figure 10.2 Washrooms on the falaj in Sudayra 131
Figure 10.3 Rotation of water shares in Sudayra 131
Figure 10.4 Stargazing point and sundial in Sudayra 133
Figure 10.5 Falaj stars identified in Sudayra 136
Figure 11.1 Layout of Al Fath 139
Figure 11.2 Public baths and lit access to the falaj in Al Fath 140
Figure 11.3 Rotation of water shares in Al Fath 141
Figure 11.4 The sundial at Al Fath 142
Figure 11.5 Falaj stars identified in Al Fath 146