ETHIOPIA
Country Technical Paper
Framework for NGO programmes
1 Justification of food security interventions
1.1 Food security situation in the country
Ethiopia is a landlocked country extending over 1 million km² with a population of about 67 millions and a GDP per capita of US$120 – one of the lowest of the world.
More than 80% of Ethiopia's population lives in rural areas and is predominantly employed in smallholder rain-fed farming systems. At a pace of 3% growth, when the country shall hit the ceiling of 100 million inhabitants (around the year 2018) rural areas shall still host the vast majority of the population.
The State has retained monopoly on land ownership ever since the 1975 reforms. Redistribution of land carried out with the aim of re-adjusting ownership patterns on an equalitarian basis has led agriculture to absorb much of the natural increase in labour force in rural areas resulting in levelling down of farm holding size: the latter shrunk from about 2 hectares in average to less than 1 hectare over the last three decades.
Rainfall conditions have a major influence on the performance of the economy. Agricultural GDP, contributing to at least 40% of the total country's output grew in average by 3,6% between 1992/1993 and 2000/2001 but performance rates were negative in 4 of the past 11 years and in 5 of the past 14.
Increased population pressure did not lead to increased investment on land or higher yields whatsoever: per capita food production has decreased over the last three decades; at the contrary, traditional methods of restoring soil fertility (fallowing and crop rotation) were progressively abandoned by farmers. Pervasive decapitalisation has led to the predominance of short term imperatives (to procure food) at farm level and aversion to long term investment on land, possibly due to the lack of security of land use entitlements. Limited migration and narrow marketing opportunities have increasingly made farmers to focus on poorly diversified, self-subsistence production systems refraining to use inputs, further amplifying structural food insecurity.
Food gaps have been covered by food aid imports of annual average of around 700.000 MT (reaching a peak of 1,4 million MT in 2003). Over the last decade, the number of people chronically food insecure reportedly increased up to a figure comprised between 5 and 6 million.
1.2 Part to be played by the NGOs
Within the Food Security domain, NGOs funded by different EC Budget Lines over the past seven years have set in place local level initiatives aiming at protecting or rebuilding assets at both community and household level, improving production systems and promoting income generating activities, sustainable management and use of natural resources (land, water, vegetal cover) and improving access to basic services (potable water and sanitation, health, education, … etc.).
The most successful initiatives have so far been recorded in launching innovative processes fostering direct participation of beneficiaries throughout the Project Management Cycle (identification, implementation and, so far to a lesser extent, monitoring and evaluation) and in strengthening of capacities of stakeholders with the aim of initiating or institutionalising the above-mentioned actions. Proximity with end-beneficiaries and partnership with local government authorities and line departments formalised through Implementation Agreements are one of the decisive features contributing to the sustainability of such interventions.
Rather than operators actually involved in the direct implementation and scaling up of activities funded by the Federal Food Security Budget Line, NGOs are perceived by the Government as partners contributing to the increase of capacities introducing innovative approaches and supplementing human, technical and financial resources, particularly within constituencies located in remote and less accessible areas where outreach is hindered by comparatively higher delivery costs.
1.3 Motivation and involvement of the Government
The overall development strategy of the Government "seeks to promote rapid broad-based and equitable growth by focusing on rural development and improvement in physical and human capital, and deepening the devolution process to empower the people and expand the choices and control that people have over their lives". Such a strategy is set forth in the Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (Sept. 2002), for which a policy matrix covering different key sectors has been defined along with a set of indicators (in process of being) agreed upon with donors.
The Food Security Strategy (FSS) of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia initially formulated in 1996 was further updated in March 2002, following a participatory process that involved all stakeholders. The FSS was affirmed as a main component of the SDPRP, and is based on the three pillars: to increase the availability of food through increased domestic production; to ensure access to food for food deficit households; and to strengthen emergency response capabilities.
The FSS has recently benefited from increased allocation of resources directed to Regional Governments Food Security Budget Lines. The Federal Government has recently issued a partnership agenda calling for a Food Security Coalition (FSC) with the aim of mobilize the sizeable amount of financial resources required in order to make a significant dent on food insecurity.
2 Programmes for food security interventions
2.1 Summary of the programmes for food security interventions
2.1.1 The national strategy for food security and programmes managed by the government.
The FSS articulates support to economic growth and employment, targeted entitlement and access program for vulnerable groups and capacity building in emergency preparedness and prevention. In order to address the predictably chronic food insecure population within a longer-term development framework, emphasis is given to sustainable natural resources’ use and management to both halt and reverse the levels of environmental degradation, as a means to increase natural resource availability and income to food insecure households. A major feature of the FSS re-affirmed in the FSC is the development of safety net schemes and assistance to rural households to diversify their source of income.
The recently issued Food Security Coalition paper gives credit to NGOs for having initiated new technologies and methodologies that are now adopted for large scale replication in areas such as: (participatory) management of natural resources and provision of extension services, community-based animal health services, microfinance schemes, …etc. Moreover it is stated in the Coalition document that NGOs should be "fully used to support capacity wherever they have a comparative advantage consistent with the principles of decentralisation and that of participatory development."
2.1.2 The European Commission and EU Member States
The European Commission has been one of the main financiers of food aid and food security programmes in Ethiopia. Since 1996, the EC assistance totalled around 420 million €, of which 185 million € directly to the Government, (85% in the form of food, 15% in cash). Additional resources amounting to almost 235 million € were channelled through implementing partners such as WFP and NGOs.
The EC Food Security Strategy for Ethiopia designed in 1996 had two main objectives: meeting emergency needs (with emphasis on improving preparedness and planning capacity of the Government) and supporting long-term development through the provision of supplementary income to targeted food insecure populations, while building productive community assets. Since the last quarter of 2001, the focus of policy dialogue aimed at improving efficiency of funding shifted from a supply to a demand approach, taking into account the differentiation among predictable (chronic) and unpredictable (acute) food insecurity.
EC activities are concentrated in the four regions : Amhara, Oromiya, SNNPR and Tigray (see attached map). Within those regions and as of 2003, the EC is providing a budget support amounting to 25 million € through a foreign exchange facility that benefits primarily the Regional Governments' Food Security Programmes.
NGOs have had a major stake in EC-funded indirect food security program interventions. Since 1997, a total of 3,6 million rural people have benefited from EC-funded 46 projects implemented by 21 NGOs for a total amount of 41,5 millions €.
The EU support to Government policies relevant to food security (PRSP, Food Security Strategy) is embedded in the Country Strategy Paper (CSP 2002-2007) and was recently re-confirmed during the High Level Retreat in October 2003.
The CSP relevant to the 9th European Development Fund identifies food security as its focal area of support recognising the multi-dimensional nature of rural poverty and the need to create a conducive environment to develop rural economy. The GoE strategic priorities are supported by identifying food security and capacity building for governance and civil society support as priority intervention areas.
Coherence and synergies with Member States has been built and consolidated through regular consultations, leading to joint EC and EU Member States statements enabling continuous dialogue with the Government on major Food Security policy issues.
2.1.3 Interventions by other donors
The different forms of interventions undertaken in the domain of Food Security through bilateral and multilateral co-operation include : macroeconomic and sector specific support, promotion of the private sector and relief food aid mainly devoted to support demand and entitlement. The specificities of interventions supported by the main donors in the Food Security domain are outlined in the table in Annex.
2.1.4 Consistency of the programmes
In recognition of the fact that the pursuit of food security is a long-term and multi-sector challenge, strengthening of local government capacity and people’s participation in decision-making is seen as a central element of the Strategy taken up in the FSC. Within this framework, decentralisation is to be seen a major Government undertaking to insure local level participation, downward accountability and more responsive service delivery.
The EU deems essential to continue addressing food insecurity in Ethiopia in a systemic way through a sustained policy dialogue with the Government and stakeholders. Taking full advantage of ample range of instruments endowing the EU-Ethiopia development partnership, capturing the synergies derived from both direct (including budgetary) and indirect (including through NGOs) support to the Government leveraging on the (multi-)annual nature of financial resources channelled through the Commission's Budget (B7-200) and the 9th EDF (Cotonou Agreement) EU interventions are fully consistent with those of other donors.
2.2 Evaluation of the results
Overall development assistance to Ethiopia is to be considered as very low compared with SSA standards (about half of the pro capita average or US$ 14 per capita).
Despite increased agricultural production during the past seven years and considerable external support in the form of food aid, indicators of chronic food insecurity and malnutrition are increasing. Large quantities of food aid that Ethiopia has received over the last decade have created disincentives for local production.
Many of the NGO projects have initiated quite innovative approaches at rural community level, namely involving research, planning, extension and systemic development. A number of such innovative actions bear good potential for replication. However, typical problems identified during the implementation process include:
· Lack of detailed pre-feasibility studies and low involvement of beneficiary communities and local government partners in the project design, reducing ownership over results;
· Underestimation of the frequency of recurrent droughts, and limited accounting for risks (climatic or others) within the project design;
· Low capacity of the local government partners, high turnover of local personnel and lack of work incentives making it difficult to insure the continuity and/or the scaling-up of the new initiatives;
· Limited outreach and/or high unit costs per goods and services delivered limited involvement of the private sector and impact induced on local business development.
The low operational capacity of the local administration has been one of the challenging problems towards effective implementation of food security programs. Experience shows that building capacity at local level tackling CBOs, private sector and creating conducive working conditions within local government structures is vitally important to attain results and sustainable achievements.
3 Proposals for intervention
3.1 Intervention logic: justification and nature of desired aid
Lessons learned clearly indicate that food insecurity in Ethiopia is ultimately a consequence of deep and pervasive poverty and that a sizeable amount of resources needs to be injected in order to foster the creation of productive assets - beyond the mere saving of lives achieved through distribution of food aid - at rural communities and household level.
Decentralised Government entities who are legally endowed with administrative and management powers (namely Woredas and Kebeles) have started to play an increasingly crucial role in delivery particularly since the dissolution of Zones. It is anticipated that under the current situation the efficiency - rather than the funding - of the whole delivery system shall constitute a key condition of the success of such endeavour.
NGOs have become increasingly important partners of the European Commission with regard to the implementation of food security and relief interventions in Ethiopia. The major change introduced through the present Call for Proposal is relevant to the thematic and geographical concentration of NGO interventions with the objective to make a significant and sustainable contribution to improving food security within the context of the Poverty Reduction Strategy.
In general terms, the outputs resulting from NGO interventions funded under this call are expected to result in sustainably increased planning, service delivery capacity and accountability at local government levels; improved use and security of access to natural resources; diffusion of participatory approaches throughout the project cycle; increased share of cash versus food/commodities of public transfers and setting in place of safety nets targeted to the most vulnerable households.
Such outcomes are expected to be reflected in the activities carried out at Woreda level funded by Regional Food Security Budget lines.
NGOs are expected to contribute to reinforce the following methodological aspects, providing qualified technical assistance aimed at increasing Local Government capacities maximising in-country available expertise.
- Working in close proximity with local administrations and end-beneficiaries. To this end, the NGO shall devise any necessary logistic arrangement, including possibly by establishing or renting premises within the Woreda capital;
- Implementing participatory methods across all program implementation phases - provided that such methods are socially and economically acceptable to end-beneficiaries;
- Avoiding duplication, by assessing on-going interventions in the area of Food Security and local capacity building and devising according to a general principle of complementary.