St Leonards College
YEAR 11 CHEMISTRY
HANDBOOK
2018
Contents
ErrorsSignificant figures
States of matter in equations
Revision Hints
Equations
VCAA Key Skills
Unit 1 VCAA Study Design
Unit 2 VCAA Study Design
Assessment Timetable
Unit 1/2 Timetable
ERRORS
When instruments are manufactured, there is a specified uncertainty within which the instrument is designed to deliver accurate results. You do not need to remember the various uncertainties of instruments exactly, however you are required to know the probable range (to within a power of 10) within which an instrument should operate. Typical uncertainties are:
pipette 0.02 mL
burette 0.02 mL
top loading balances 0.005 g
10 mL measuring cylinders 0.1 mL
100 mL measuring cylinders 1 mL
250 mL standard flasks 0.2 mL
Errors in experimental work can be classified in three categories:
Gross Errors or Mistakes
These are due to careless work or apparatus that is temporarily faulty. By being careful and repeating the experiment several times these errors are easily detected and eliminated.
Systematic Errors
These result from an error in the equipment. They can be eliminated by careful calibration of the instrument.
Random Errors
These errors arise from random variations. They cannot be eliminated, but are reduced by repeating the experiment several times and averaging the results.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
All of your numeric answers in the examination must be calculated to the correct number of significant figures. Generally you will lose one mark once only on your paper if your answers are incorrect to more one significant figure. Whilst one mark may not seem especially large, it is easy to express answers correctly.
The following rules will allow you to determine the correct number of significant figures.
- A significant figure is either an integer or a zero that follows an integer. For example:
0.0100 has three significant figures; 100 has three significant figures; 0.001 has one significant figure; 1001.0 has five significant figures; 0.0040 has two significant figures.
- When determining the number of significant figures for your answer, use the smaller number of decimal places present in the values you used for the calculations.
Example: Use the Law of Conservation of Mass to calculate the mass of product formed when 1.00 g C6H12 reacts completely with 0.0442 g H2 gas.
Solution: 1.00 + 0.0442 = 1.0442 = 1.04 (2 decimal places)
STATES OF MATTER IN EQUATIONS
All reactants and products in equations should have their states correctly included. This means you must use the terms (aq), (g), (s) and (l) properly. You lose one mark once only on your paper for incorrect states in equations.
REVISION HINTS
YOUR REVISION PROGRAM
As part of your revision program, you should:
- Memorise all the key ideas including definitions, important equations, and details of instruments, industrial processes and cells.
- Go over the outcome statements in the Study Design.
- Go over questions you have done during the term from your text book. You should be able to do this quite quickly. There is no need to do them all again; just select typical examples of each type. Try working out the main steps in your head to save time. Particularly select the questions with which you previously had difficulty or needed someone to show you.
- The Sample Exams can be found via the CEA website, under VCE Chemistry,
- All papers can be downloaded from the VCAA or CEA websites.
- The more past examinations you do, the better your marks will be. It is not necessary to do them as complete exams. As you revise topics, you can complete the appropriate questions, being careful to keep to the time suggested for each question. At other times you may decide that you need practice in doing multiple choice questions - 20 in 20 minutes is a good idea.
- Make sure you speak to your teacher about the problems you are constantly finding.
- When you complete 2 or 3 papers, read your notes completely to remind yourself regularly of the details of the course. During the weeks before the exams in June and November, this should occur at least twice a week until the exam. You should have one complete set of notes. Amalgamate all revision notes, class notes and summaries.
YOUR REVISION TIMETABLE
You should make up a revision timetable. Work backwards from your examinations. Naturally you will revise for a specific exam the night before. Be careful to allocate equal time during the prior weekend to all subjects in which you have an exam. Work backwards through the weeks before the exams.
IN THE EXAM
During the reading time read the whole paper slowly and carefully. Do not flip back and forward. During the reading time you will slow down your pulse rate and allow your thoughts to begin to work in an ordered way. Take some deep breaths and consciously regain your full composure. By reading with understanding your mind will start to work on the problems. During this time you may also find material in one section of the paper that will assist you with a different question!
Decide whether you are doing the multiple-choice or structured questions first.
When completing the multiple choice questions do all questions. Do not leave any blank, even if you have to guess. Before you hand in your paper, double check that you have answered all questions. Be careful to write the correct answer in the correct box.
In the extended answer section, do the question of which you are most certain first.
Check the time at the end of each question.
Reread each question when you finished it and check you have answered all parts, balanced all equations, and included all states and units.
If you complete your answer away from the expected section, clearly direct the marker to follow your working.
Set out your answers clearly, stating the formulae you intend to use, as this often earns marks.
e.g.n (NaOH) = c x V
pH = - log10 [H3O+]
FORMULAE
Formulae must be memorised because no information can be taken in to the examination in your calculator memory. Your calculator must not be programmable.
n = m / M / n = number of particlesNA
n = cV / pH = – log10 [H3O+]
E = V × I × t / [H3O+] = 10-pH
C.F.= (V × I × t) / T / [H3O+] × [OH-] = 10-14 at 25oC
Ar= (relative isotopic mass x relative abundance) / total relative abundance / E = 4.184 × m × T
n amount in moles
mmass in grams
M molar mass in grams per mole
NAAvogadro’s Number = 6.023 × 1023
cconcentration in moles per litre (M)
V volume in litres
Qcharge in Coulomb
I current in amps
t time in s
Vvoltage in volts
VCAA KEY SKILLS for UNITS 1-2
Investigate and inquire scientifically
• work independently and collaboratively as required to develop and apply safe and responsible work practices when completing all practical investigations including the appropriate disposal of wastes;
• conduct investigations that include collecting, processing, recording and analysing qualitative and quantitative data; draw conclusions consistent with the question under investigation and the information collected; evaluate procedures and reliability of data;
• construct questions (and hypotheses); plan and/or design, and conduct investigations; identify and address possible sources of uncertainty;
• apply ethics of scientific research when conducting and reporting on investigations.
Apply chemical understandings
• make connections between concepts; process information; apply understandings to familiar and new contexts;
• use first and second-hand data and evidence to demonstrate how chemical concepts and theories have developed and been modified over time;
• analyse issues and implications relating to scientific and technological developments;
• analyse and evaluate the reliability of chemistry related information and opinions presented in the public domain.
Communicate chemical information and understandings
• interpret, explain and communicate chemical information and ideas accurately and effectively;
• use communication methods suitable for different audiences and purposes;
• use scientific language and conventions correctly, including chemical equations and units of measurement.
UNIT 1 - HOW CAN THE DIVERSITY OF MATERIALS BE EXPLAINED
AREA OF STUDY 1 – How can knowledge of elements explain the properties of matter?
Outcome 1
Key knowledge
Elements and the periodic table
• the relative and absolute sizes of particles that are visible and invisible to the unaided eye: small and giant
molecules and lattices; atoms and sub-atomic particles; nanoparticles and nanostructures
• the definition of an element with reference to atomic number; mass number; isotopic forms of an element using
appropriate notation
• spectral evidence for the Bohr model and for its refinement as the Schrodinger model; electronic configurations
of elements 1 to 36 using the Schrodinger model of the atom, including s, p, d and f notations (with copper
and chromium exceptions)
• the periodic table as an organisational tool to identify patterns and trends in, and relationships between, the
structures (including electronic configurations and atomic radii) and properties (including electronegativity, first
ionisation energy, metallic/non-metallic character and reactivity) of elements.
Metals
• the common properties of metals (lustre, malleability, ductility, heat and electrical conductivity) with reference
to the nature of metallic bonding and the structure of metallic crystals, including limitations of representations;
general differences between properties of main group and transition group metals
• experimental determination of the relative reactivity of metals with water, acids and oxygen
• the extraction of a selected metal from its ore/s including relevant environmental, economic and social issues
associated with its extraction and use
• experimental modification of a selected metal related to the use of coatings or heat treatment or alloy production
• properties and uses of metallic nanomaterials and their different nanoforms including comparison with the
properties of their corresponding bulk materials.
Ionic compounds
• common properties of ionic compounds (brittleness, hardness, high melting point, difference in electrical
conductivity in solid and liquid states) with reference to their formation, nature of ionic bonding and crystal
structure including limitations of representations
• experimental determination of the factors affecting crystal formation of ionic compounds
• the uses of common ionic compounds.
Quantifying atoms and compounds
• the relative isotopic masses of elements and their representation on the relative mass scale using the carbon-12
isotope as the standard; reason for the selection of carbon-12 as the standard
• determination of the relative atomic mass of an element using mass spectrometry (details of instrument not required)
• the mole concept; Avogadro constant; determination of the number of moles of atoms in a sample of known
mass; calculation of the molar mass of ionic compounds
• experimental determination of the empirical formula of an ionic compound.
AREA OF STUDY 2 –HOW CAN THE VERSATILITY OF NON-METALS BE EXPLAINED
Outcome 2
Key knowledge
Materials from molecules
• representations of molecular substances (electron dot formulas, structural formulas, valence structures, ball and-
stick models, space-filling models) including limitations of representations
• shapes of molecules and an explanation of their polar or non-polar character with reference to the electronegativities of their atoms and electron-pair repulsion theory
• explanation of properties of molecular substances (including low melting point and boiling point, softness, and
non-conduction of electricity) with reference to their structure, intramolecular bonding and intermolecular forces
• the relative strengths of bonds (covalent bonding, dispersion forces, dipole-dipole attraction and hydrogen
bonding) and evidence and factors that determine bond strength including explanations for the floating of ice and expansion of water at higher temperatures.
Carbon lattices and carbon nanomaterials
• the structure and bonding of diamond and graphite that explain their properties (including heat and electrical
conductivity and hardness) and their suitability for diverse applications
• the structures, properties and applications of carbon nanomaterials including graphene and fullerenes.
Organic compounds
• the origin of crude oil and its use as a source of hydrocarbon raw materials
• the grouping of hydrocarbon compounds into families (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, carboxylic acids
and non-branched esters) based upon similarities in their physical and chemical properties including general
formulas, their representations (structural formulas, condensed formulas, Lewis structures), naming according
to IUPAC systematic nomenclature (limited to non-cyclic compounds up to C10, and structural isomers up to
C7) and uses based upon properties
• determination of empirical and molecular formulas of organic compounds from percentage composition by
mass and molar mass.
Polymers
• the formation of polymers from monomers including addition polymerisation of alkenes
• the distinction between linear (thermoplastic) and cross-linked (thermosetting) polymers with reference to structure, bonding and properties including capacity to be recycled
• the features of linear polymers designed for a particular purpose including the selection of a suitable monomer
(structure and properties), chain length, degree of branching, percentage crystalline areas and addition of plasticisers
• the advantages and disadvantages of the use of polymer materials.
AREA OF STUDY 3 – RESEARCH INVESTIGATION
Outcome 3
Key knowledge
• the characteristics of effective science communication
• the chemical concepts specific to the investigation: definitions of key terms; use of appropriate chemical
terminology, conventions, units and representations
• the use of data representations, models and theories in organising and explaining observed phenomena and
chemical concepts, and their limitations
• the nature of evidence and information: distinction between weak and strong evidence, and scientific and non-scientific
ideas; and validity, reliability and authority of data including sources of possible errors or bias
• the influence of social, economic, environmental and ethical factors relevant to the selected chemical investigation.
UNIT 2: WHAT MAKES WATER SUCH A UNIQUE CHEMICAL
AREA OF STUDY 1 –HOW DO SUBSTANCES INTERACT WITH WATER
Outcome 1
Key knowledge
Properties of water
• trends in the melting and boiling points of Group 16 hydrides, with reference to the nature and relative strengths
of their intermolecular forces and to account for the exceptional values for water
• specific heat capacity and latent heat including units and symbols, with reference to hydrogen bonding to account
for the relatively high specific heat capacity of liquid water, and significance for organisms and water supplies
of the relatively high latent heat of vaporisation of water.
Water as a solvent
• the comparison of solution processes in water for molecular substances and ionic compounds
• precipitation reactions represented by balanced full and ionic equations, including states
• the importance of the solvent properties of water in selected biological, domestic or industrial contexts.
Acid-base (proton transfer) reactions in water
• the Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases including polyprotic acids and amphiprotic species, and writing
of balanced ionic equations for their reactions with water including states
• the ionic product of water, the pH scale and the use of pH in the measurement and calculations of strengths
of acids and bases and dilutions of solutions (calculations involving acidity constants are not required)
• the distinction between strong and weak acids and bases, and between concentrated and dilute acids and
bases, including common examples
• the reactions of acids with metals, carbonates and hydroxides including balanced full and ionic equations, with
states indicated
• the causes and effects of a selected issue related to acid-base chemistry.
Redox (electron transfer) reactions in water
• oxidising and reducing agents, conjugate redox pairs and redox reactions including writing of balanced half and
overall redox equations with states indicated
• the reactivity series of metals and metal displacement reactions including balanced redox equations with states
indicated
• the causes and effects of a selected issue related to redox chemistry.
AREA OF STUDY 2 –HOW ARE SUBSTANCES IN WATER MEASURED AND ANALYSED?
Outcome 2
Key knowledge
Water sample analysis
• existence of water in all three states at Earth’s surface including the distribution and proportion of available
drinking water
• sampling protocols including equipment and sterile techniques for the analysis of water quality at various
depths and locations
• the definition of a chemical contaminant and an example relevant to a selected water supply.
Measurement of solubility and concentration
• the use of solubility tables and experimental measurement of solubility in gram per 100 g of water
• the quantitative relationship between temperature and solubility of a given solid, liquid or gas in water
• the use of solubility curves as a quantitative and predictive tool in selected biological, domestic or industrial contexts
• the concept of solution concentration measured with reference to moles (mol L-1) or with reference to mass or
volume (g L-1, mg L-1, %(m/m), %(m/v), %(v/v), ppm, ppb) in selected domestic, environmental, commercial or
industrial applications, including unit conversions.
Analysis for salts in water
• sources of salts found in water (may include minerals, heavy metals, organo-metallic substances) and the use
of electrical conductivity to determine the salinity of water samples
• the application of mass-mass stoichiometry to gravimetric analysis to determine the mass of a salt in a water sample
• the application of colorimetry and/or UV-visible spectroscopy, including the use of a calibration curve, to
determine the concentration of coloured species (ions or complexes) in a water sample
• the application of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), including the use a calibration curve, to determine the
concentration of metals or metal ions in a water sample (excluding details of instrument).
Analysis for organic compounds in water
• sources of organic contaminants found in water (may include dioxins, insecticides, pesticides, oil spills)
• the application of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) including the use of a calibration curve and