Teaching and Learning Research Programme

Annual Conference Papers

5th Annual Conference, 22-24 November 2004

Cardiff Marriott Hotel

First steps and second thoughts on method: beginning to research the learning of new teachers

Jim McNally, Nick Boreham, Peter Cope and Peter Gray

University of Stirling

Ian Stronach and Brian Corbin

Manchester Metropolitan

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First steps and second thoughts on method: beginning to research the learning of new teachers

Paper presented to the TLRP annual conference at Cardiff, November 2004 from the Phase 3 Project on Enhanced Competence-based Learning in Early Professional Development (the ‘EPL’ Project)

Ref: RES-139-25-0122

Abstract

This paper is an account of our progress in addressing the challenge of developing a quasi-experimental method of assessing early professional learning (EPL), based on a model from data gathered by teachers as ethnographers in their own schools. From the early doubts and debates in internal discussions about the research design, we present in this paper the steps taken so far and our thoughts about these.Progress on the five indicators of early professional learning in the proposal are described and one of these, namely ‘jobsatisfaction for new teachers’, is considered in some detail. We also report on our emerging understanding of the role of teachers as ethnographers: their selection, insights, early findings and ethical concerns. They are submitting their first set of research interviews and observations at the time of this abstract submission, so we have little data on which to report but we shall include a summary of their emerging data at the conference. It is also our intention to discuss the extent to which these findings build on the provisional theorization in the original proposal and also begin to shape the model of EPL.

Jim McNally, Nick Boreham, Peter Cope and Peter Gray (Stirling)

Ian Stronach and Brian Corbin (Manchester Metropolitan)

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First steps and second thoughts on method:

beginning to research the learning of new teachers

In taking our first methodological steps forward since the proposal, our thinking has predictably evolved in ways unforeseen. There have been lengthy meetings and contestations but, in forcing ourselves to face internal critique and think again, we think we have made useful progress on some fronts, even if we had to step backwards on to the ropes at times. This paper reports our position so far on EPPI-style systematic review, teachers as ethnographers and ‘jobsatisfaction’ as an indicator of new teacher performance – these in some detail – and the other four indicators more briefly. We conclude with an overall reflection on the methodology we are evolving - quantitative indicators based on qualitative substance and the whole question of naturalistic experimentation - as a meaningful base of evidence on which we can eventually warrant our claims. A summary of the project (‘regard’ version) is attached for reference at the end of the paper.

1 Beginning a systematic review

Strictly adhered to, the methodology of EPPI-style systematic reviewing includes the specification of an ‘answerable’ research question plus filtering criteria for inclusion and exclusion of possible literature. The key criteria concern content relevance to the specified question and the soundness of research methodology used, and judgements about these are often made on the basis of titles or abstracts (Gough and Elbourne 2002). Sources can include electronic databases, more traditional ‘handsearching’ of academic texts and ‘grey’ literature such as reports. These are not restricted to sources involving random-controlled trials (RCTs).The merits claimed are transparency and a comprehensive ‘mapping’ of the field, two features which are held to be lacking in the more traditional ‘narrative review’ literature review.

The guiding research question for EPL’s commitment to a systematic literature review is: ‘What forms of support for beginning teachers appear to be effective?’ Initial discussions with EPPI-Centre have established that a broad approach will be drawn on, to include continuing professional development (CPD) literature concerning early professional learning. The review aims are three-fold: to inform emerging empirical findings and help guide theory development; to enable a critical review of the systematic review process itself; and to contribute to the robustness of the findings by providing breadth to the large body of contextualised empirical data the research will produce.

An example of an EPPI-style review relevant to the EPL project is provided by a recent publication on NQT induction, the research question of which is ‘ How does current research characterise the impact of NQT Induction programmes on new teachers in relation to enhancing teaching expertise, professional development, job satisfaction and retention rates?’ (Totterdell et al 2004). It reports that of the 621 references screened, 51 provided what was regarded as a ‘descriptive map’ and only two focused on new teacher induction and CPD. The review concludes there was a ‘lack of sound research’ to address the review question. However, it does provide a valuable starting point for issues of induction and retention and recommends further investigation of the field.

The paucity of existing literature resulting from strictly applied EPPI- style filtering decisions has been noted elsewhere (egTorrance and Coultas 2004). One major casualty of its methodological strictures is qualitative research, especially on the basis of methodological issues. This is a serious problem for the EPL’s commitment to investigating the role of informal culture, the (learning) experiences of new teachers and the varied contexts of learning. Given that we want to combine qualitative with quantitative approaches our review has been broadened. Our early database searches, including ERIC and BEI, have been subjected to our own initial filtering criteria, concentrating on UK studies 1998-2004 and using a variety of what we judge to be relevant search terms rather than a single specific question. At this stage in particular, exceptions to our initial filtering criteria include sources of particular methodological or theoretical interest. As just one example of what is not included in the EPPI-Centre (Totterdell 2004) ‘descriptive map’, and using ‘new teachers’ and ‘induction’ as search terms, we judge a case study of beginning teachers and their informal learning by Williams (2003) as worth closer reading.

It is also the case that a conceptual understanding of early development in teaching benefits from ideas outside the conventional, largely insular literature on teacher education. There is explanatory power in ideas such as the importance of friendship (White 1990); the formation of human bonds (Almond, 1988); psychosocial support and integration (Jacobi 1991); mentoring in adult development (Levinson et al 1978). We developed the grounded concept of ‘relational conditions’ as a way of explaining the social context within which individual beginners lived the text of their own development between extremes of ‘total abandonment’ and ‘rigidly controlled, stifling support’ (McNally et al 1997) – an explanation that is consistent with accounts in cultural psychology of the reciprocity between the ontogenesis and sociogenesis of knowledge (Valsiner and van de Veer 2000).

Besides our overall guiding research question (as above), there are three others stated in the project proposal, concerning the use of competence statements, non-formal learning and the development of a model of early professional learning. These ‘express the direction of our intended research’ and as such are too rich to generate direct systematic review ‘hits’. In addition, the size and research backgrounds of the research team are further resources for expert judgements about available literature sources. The ongoing development of the ‘jobsat’ indicator is one example.

The development of ways of including ethnographic or interpretative research sources in the systematic review process is currently of considerable interest, as is the broader issue of combining research methods from traditionally separate perspectives (eg. Gorard and Taylor 2004). For example, Dixon-Woods (2004) reviews ten different approaches to such qualitative/quantitative combination in the context of systematic review. In her view, none of these provide a recipe which eliminates questions of judgement. We see our work as part of that development.

2 Teachers as ethnographers in their own schools

Rationale for use of teachers as ethnographers

Understanding how new teachers learn is limited by conventional interview strategies. In one or two interviews, however searching, it is difficult to get beyond a vague yet dominant picture of an informal relational process of belonging and becoming. Our own work in this area led us to making the case for more progressive focusing. This position is supported by the experience of Eraut (2000), who also concluded that a strategy reliant on interviews by outsiders was limited in its potential for eliciting ‘evidence of processes that, if not entirely tacit, do not come readily to mind’. The nature of early professional learning has a greater chance of clearer exposition, therefore, through more sustained contact with the learners and their context. This has led us to the deployment of teachers as ethnographers of new teachers in their own schools.

The workplace presence of the T-Eths presents naturalistic opportunities for gathering richer evidence on the activities and social transactions in which new teachers engage. Not only are they uniquely close to the action as researchers, their closeness to the lived experience of learning to teach has the advantage of allowing day-to-day access to studying the nature of individuals’ learning through a broader range of professional settings e.g. post-lesson discussion, staffroom conversations, and also different types of interview e.g. lesson-focused, biographical. Given a protected, flexible time allocation they are in a unique situation to exploit their native status and to be participant observers in a range of situations.

In taking this methodological step forwardstep we hope to develop a new theoretical understanding of EPL. Our method reflects some characteristics of Flyvbjerg’s (2001) espoused approach to social science - closeness to reality, practice before discourse, cases in context, for example – and, although it is not purely phronetic research, we are exploring his view that a focus on concrete cases and narrative is ‘perfectly compatible’ with attempts at empirical generalisations. The ethnographic case studies of new teachers in their schools will provide specific knowledge in context. Our potential contribution has to be tempered, however, by the negligible influence of researchers so far on teacher education policy. As Hagger and McIntyre (2000) remind us, generalisations from research can offer insight and guidance but the practice of teachers is about subtle judgements in unique situations.

Selection process

In selecting the teachers we drew largely on our own prior experiences as teachers, researchers and interviewers in educational contexts. There was little guidance in the literature though cautionary observations from Ruddock to Boreham at TLRP conference were noted. Our view was that we wanted credible teachers who had the respect and trust of their colleagues in school. We did not regard research experience as essential and recognized that many teachers act as ethnographers in less explicit ways. Those who applied would be applying to do a job for which they were not specifically trained and for which we did not expect them to be trained. For this reason and also because of our uncertainty in this relative novel experience for us, we did not go as far as writing a ‘person specification’. We wanted good teachers but the kind of good teacher who was also able to stand outside the inevitable absorption of the job. We felt we had to remain open. The advertisement brought a larger response than expected (39 applicants). It was not easy to form a short leet on the basis of written applications ranging from two short pages to over ten. In fact the CVs were not very helpful, oriented as they were to teaching jobs and previous experience, none of which could be of any specific relevance. The one exception actually had a Ph.D. in a related area but, to his advantage, he like us wondered whether this might be a problem. With the exception of a few that seemed to express a cursory interest, interest appeared to be genuine and, as we felt it important to get a more of a sense of each person, an initial long leet of 33 was drawn up. It was subsequently suggested to us that in the immediate ‘post McCrone’ period in Scotland, many teachers were looking for fulfillment other than through promotion. The ‘EPL project’ seemed to reflect an area of great interest in supporting beginners in teaching.

The long leet interviews allowed us to think further about what we wanted and, perhaps more, about what we did not want. The candidates were generally fluent and articulate with a range of admirable qualities. Genuine interest in the project, some insight into the beginner’s experience rather than what policy dictated, emerged as possibly the main criteria (along with an impression of credibility and respect amongst colleagues, already mentioned above), although individual intuition and discussion within the interview panel played a large part in clarifying who showed these. A short leet of 13 was eventually agreed and further interviews took place. These allowed us to develop a conversation with these applicants and we began to form firmer impressions. Any of these 13, and some beyond that, were ‘appointable’ so we ranked these ‘independently’, then collectively, then independently again, before whittling it down to six. Collective episodes proved to be important in reconciling the differences and disagreements amongst ourselves, and in learning how others interpreted the interviews, from psychological profiling to impressionistic and intuitive. We also began at this stage to see some seven or eight in the job as individuals interacting well with each other as a working team. The six were appointed on 1.5 days each. Since then one – the youngest - has been promoted and has had to reluctantly give up. She has been replaced by another from the short leet. Another is with child and will therefore be assisted by a co-opted teacher from her school.

Looking back from our better acquaintance now with the teacher-ethnographers it is possible that we were operating some kind of implicit ‘perspec’:

capable, respected colleague

approachable – a ‘friendly face’ - and part of a wider school community

access to people and situations

thinker but not paralysed by reflection – ‘doer’ who could also think

not closed mind or dogmatic

offers some insight into new teacher experience

ability to engage in explanatory dialogue

genuine interest and not a pure career move

energy and commitment to see the job through

operates well within a group of peers

Though we had decided that three years of teaching experience was probably a minimum requirement, the six have some 140 years of teaching altogether with ten years as the least. (The one with 3 years was lost to promotion within a month of being appointed.) None of them is in or seeks, as far as we know, a post in senior management i.e. as Depute Head.

Preparation

It was our intention to introduce the appointed teachers to ethnographic methods. This was done in four two hour sessions after school from March to June in preparation for gathering data at the start of the new school session in August. For these sessions we drew specifically on Hamilton (1999) and Coffey (1999), more generally on Spradley (1979) and Glaser (1978) and used some case study excerpts as a basis for more reflexive discussion. Thus we covered interview approaches, the need for sensitivity to the emergence of data, theoretical refinement, styles of reporting and also an awareness of their ethnographic selves. To a large extent they were naturally attuned to much of this. They were well aware of the possibility that their very closeness to the action as teachers, particularly if they had some mentoring responsibility themselves, would become an ethical issue.

Already they have begun to conduct interviews in their own styles and appear to be eliciting data comfortably, with a knowledge of the immediate context, as in this excerpt from the new teacher of drama in a temporarily decanted department.

T-Eth: We are going to spend maybe 20 minutes maximum talking about your first wee while and any experiences you have had from the start of term. Again it’s confidential and anything you choose to tell me will be between us. I’m really interested in anything, any experiences, either in classes or in the department or in the school that you want to talk about. I obviously have some ideas about the things that might come up, so we can maybe work backwards and forwards between the two of us. We are not talking about things that need to be earth shattering either, it’s not huge events all the time, it’s the bread and butter of daily life, so I mean, if there is anything… maybe starting with first impressions?

NewT: It was a bit of an upheaval I suppose being over there and then coming back and not sure. [Note - The drama department was in use as a venue for a theatrical performance in the first week of term and the department was decanted into the main school for that week.] For the classes as well, they weren’t sure if they were coming here or coming there, and because it’s quite a short period then if they came over here and…..

Reflexivity

From the outset the potential ethical dilemmas of their dual role - researching new teachers while also providing possible support - have been acknowledged and discussed. What the introductory academic text of ethnography is not quite able to address is the actual primary identity of the intended researchers as teachers in a school. It was anticipated that there would be changing perceptions by colleagues (and by themselves) of their ‘new’ identity once they assume this rather singular position as researchers of some of these same colleagues. How would they be seen, for example, by new teachers in the staffroom? (a question we asked at interview). The position of part-time teacher and other-time observer could well cast them in a surveillance role. Being seen as respected and trustworthy by school colleagues does become a fairly important criterion if we accept this scenario of identity stress. It places an importance on the selection process that we had perhaps not adequately realized at the time. Potential as an ethnographer is something that can be supported, in contrast to stability of identity through established reputation, over which we have no control.