MEDIA INFLUENCES ON SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

To read up on media influences on social behaviour, refer to pages 551–567 of Eysenck’s A2 Level Psychology.

Ask yourself

  • Do you think violent films are the cause of some “copy cat” killings? If so, should they be banned?
  • Can the media be a force for good?
  • What effect does playing video games have on the players?

What you need to know

EXPLANATIONS OF MEDIA INFLUENCES ON PRO- AND ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR (two is the minimum you need to know) / EFFECTS OF VIDEO GAMES AND COMPUTERS ON YOUNG PEOPLE
  • Social Learning Theory
  • Disinhibition
  • Desensitisation
  • Cognitive priming
  • Stereotypes and counter-stereotypes
  • Stimulation hypothesis
  • Findings of research on pro-social behaviour
  • Findings of research on anti-social behaviour
/
  • Effects of violent video games and the general aggression model
  • Effects of other types of games
  • Research evidence
  • Evaluation

Explanations of Media Influences on Pro- and Anti-Social Behaviour

Media refers to any medium of communication. This includes books, newspapers, magazines, music, the internet, CDs, DVDs, videotapes, films, television. In this section we are considering its influence on pro-social and anti-social behaviour and looking at explanations for why the media influences people in either or both of these directions.

Social Learning Theory

Social learning involves learning by observation and imitation of models. We are likely to imitate models with the following characteristics:

  • They are admired.
  • They are successful.
  • They are similar to us.
  • They are reinforced for their actions.
  • They are characters with whom we identify.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE
  • Bandura carried out a series of studies on the effect of watching violence. In the original studies (Bandura, 1961, 1977; see A2 Level Psychology page 552), children observed an adult being aggressive towards a Bobo doll. The research demonstrated that young children imitated the model, especially if it was the same sex as them. In later research, Bandura (1965) showed children films of people being aggressive in which the aggression was rewarded, punished, or not shown to have any consequences. Children copied the rewarded and no-consequence models but were unlikely to copy the punished model.
Disinhibition

Most of the time anti-social behaviour and violent behaviour is inhibited. However, if large amounts of violence or other anti-social behaviour is shown in the media then it may be viewed as acceptable. That is, disinhibition occurs.

With respect to pro-social behaviour, inhibition is less likely to be present initially as we tend to encourage this behaviour, but sometimes it occurs perhaps due to embarrassment of providing help. If, therefore, the media portrays people being altruistic in circumstances in which people are normally reluctant to act this way then disinhibition may occur.

Desensitisation

Desensitisation involves reducing our sensitivity to violent acts. It therefore refers to anti-social behaviour, not pro-social behaviour. This reduced sensitivity occurs if people repeatedly view violent acts and can be empirically shown by reduced physiological arousal in those who have previously viewed violence as compared to those who have not seen it.

RESEARCH EVIDENCE
  • Thomas et al. (1977, see A2 Level Psychology page 553) demonstrated that children who had previously seen a violent videotaped programme became less aroused by an aggressive videotape than those who had not seen the programme.
Cognitive Priming

This explanation states that cues associated with aggression and other anti-social behaviour, as presented in the media, may trigger anti-social thoughts and feelings, especially of violence. The sight of guns, a stabbing, a fight—all may prime someone to act aggressively.

RESEARCH EVIDENCE
  • Josephson (1987, see A2 Level Psychology page 553) showed that boys who were “primed” to associate aggression with a walkie-talkie were more aggressive when they were given instructions via a walkie-talkie than if a tape recorder was used.
Stereotypes and counter-stereotypes

The media can influence behaviour through the use of stereotypes. As presented in the media, these can lead to the expectation that certain groups will behave in certain ways.

RESEARCH EVIDENCE
  • Mulac, Bradac, and Mann (1985, see A2 Level Psychology page 554) found strong gender stereotyping in children’s TV programmes. These can be anti-social if they create or maintain prejudices. They can be pro-social if they break down existing prejudices by, for example, going against a prevailing negative stereotype. These are referred to as counter-stereotypes.
Stimulation hypothesis

This hypothesis proposes that the media has enormous potential for education in many ways, including providing suitable role models for children to imitate. The most effective way of promoting pro-social behaviour is placing role models in everyday situations and providing pro-social ways of dealing with them.

RESEARCH EVIDENCE
  • Johnson and Ettema (1986, see A2 Level Psychology page 555) reported on the effect of a TV programme, Freestyle, in which characters find ways of dealing pro-socially with different anti-social situations and are rewarded for doing so. For example, they might step in to prevent bullying. However, the danger of such programmes is that children imitate some of the anti-social behaviour that occurs during the programme but not the pro-social solution.
Research findings on media effects on Pro-social Behaviour
  • Friedrich and Stein (1973, see A2 Level Psychology page 555) found that American preschool children who watched episodes of pro-social TV programme called Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood were more helpful and co-operative than children who had not seen the programmes.
  • Sprafkin, Liebert, and Poulos (1975, see A2 Level Psychology page 555) studied the effect of watching certain episodes of Lassie, comparing children who had seen episodes in which Lassie helps others with those who had seen Lassie programmes without that content and those who watched a neutral programme. The first group of children gave more time to helping distressed puppies than either of the other groups.
  • Baran, Chase, and Courtright (1979, see A2 Level Psychology page 556) found that older children, aged 8–10, were more helpful after watching pro-social episodes of The Waltons than those who had not watched the programmes.
  • Rosenkoetter (1999, see A2 Level Psychology page 556) argued that pro-social television will only influence children if they understand the moral message behind it.
  • Rauterberg (2004, see A2 Level Psychology page 556) reviewed many studies of the effects of pro-social behaviour and came to the following conclusions:
  • Children exposed to pro-social TV programmes have more positive social interactions, more self-control, and show more altruistic behaviour.
  • The effects on pro-social behaviour are stronger when the programme is followed by discussion.
  • The effects on pro-social behaviour are stronger on very young children (aged 3–10) than on adolescents.
  • Hearold (1986, see A2 Level Psychology page 556) reviewed over 100 studies and commented that, although most studies showed an effect on pro-social behaviour, most of them only looked at short-term effects so we have little knowledge of long-term effects.
  • Wiegman, Kuttschreuter, and Baarda (1992) carried out a longitudinal study on the effect of viewing pro-social behaviour on TV and found no effects on subsequent pro-social behaviour.
  • O’Connor (1980, see A2 Level Psychology page 556), however, did find some long-term effects of rather different behaviour. Children who normally avoided playing with other children did play with others after watching a programme modelling this behaviour and the effects were long term.
EVALUATION OF MEDIA EFFECTS ON PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
  • Findings are consistent. Research on the effect of the media on pro-social behaviour shows consistently there are short-term beneficial effects on altruistic behaviour and positive interactions.
  • There is no evidence of long-term benefits.
  • The media have an effect on young children.
  • There is little evidence of any effect on older children (adolescents).
  • The research has limitations. Different research has focused on very different pro-social behaviours so it is difficult to obtain an overall picture of its effectiveness. Most research focuses on short-term effects.
Research findings on media effects on anti-social behaviour
  • Gerbner (1994, see A2 Level Psychology page 557) pointed out that there is a huge amount of violence shown in the media. The average 16-year-old has seen 13,000 violent murders on TV.
  • The National Television Violence Study (1997, see A2 Level Psychology page 557) reported that on American TV people were not seen to suffer physical injury and the majority did not show pain during fights. In children’s programmes, 66% show violence as amusing; only 5% depict it as having long-term adverse effects.
  • Leyens et al. (1975, see A2 Level Psychology page 558) demonstrated, in a field experiment in a institution for juvenile delinquents, that those exposed to a week of violent films were more aggressive afterwards than those exposed to exciting non-violent films. These effects were stronger in the short term than in the long term.
  • Coyne, Archer, and Eslea (2004, see A2 Level Psychology page 558) pointed out there has been little research done on indirect aggression (e.g. spreading rumours). They found that in 11- to 14-year-olds, the children copied the type of aggression they witnessed, as predicted by SLT.
  • Eron (1982) and Huesmann, Lagerspetz, and Eron (1984, see A2 Level Psychology page 558), working in collaboration on very long-term research into the effects of media violence on behaviour, have consistently found a positive correlation between the amount of violent TV watched and aggression. They found that 30-year-olds exposed to violent TV showed more anti-social behaviour in general, some of it criminal, with a general lack of consideration for others.
  • Johnson and Young (2002, see A2 Level Psychology page 558) conducted a 17-year longitudinal study of 700 American children and found a consistent relationship between viewed violence and aggression. For example, children who, at age 14, had watched more than 3 hours of TV daily were, as older teenagers, five times more likely to commit aggressive acts than those who had not. This supports both the desensitisation and the disinhibition hypotheses.
  • Wood, Wong, and Chachere (1991, see A2 Level Psychology page 559), in a meta-analysis of 28 laboratory and field studies, found that exposure to media violence led to more aggressive behaviour towards others, including friends.
  • Charlton (1998, see A2 Level Psychology page 560), in a natural experiment, looked at the effect of the introduction of TV onto the island and St Helena and found no increase in any anti-social behaviour in young children. The main factors thought to prevent television violence from influencing the children were: having a stable home, school, and community situation.
  • Zillman and Weaver (1997, see A2 Level Psychology page 561) have demonstrated what many other researchers have found: that there are large individual differences in the effect of violence, and on the whole it is those high in aggressive tendencies to start with who are most affected by media violence.

It is worth pointing out that many other forms of anti-social behaviour, such as prejudice, are seen in the media. It is also worth noting that there are many forms of the media. Several newspapers regularly carry stories that can be seen to inflame prejudiced attitudes. In addition, the limited portrayal of ethnic minorities and inter-ethnic interaction means that children develop stereotypical views of society. The effect of the media on anti-social behaviours other than aggression has not been well researched.

EVALUATION OF MEDIA EFFECTS ON ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
  • Findings are consistent. Most of the evidence consistently indicates that media violence increases anti-social behaviour. Generally, the findings are stronger for short-term effects but studies over a long period of time do indicate long-term effects as well.
  • Findings have helped identify factors that are important in determining strength of effects of media violence. The main factors appear to show that anti-social behaviour is most common when a violent person is rewarded for behaving violently, when the depiction of violence is realistic, and when the victim’s suffering isn’t shown.
  • Failure to distinguish between different types of aggression. There is a vast difference between cartoon violence and factual violence but research does not always distinguish between them.
  • Much research is correlational so cause and effect cannot be established.
  • Laboratory studies lack ecological validity and show only short-term effects.
  • Longitudinal studies do show long-term effects. Although most longitudinal studies are correlational, the weight of the evidence does indicate a long-term cumulative effect of media violence on anti-social behaviour.
  • Most research based on US and Britain. There is relatively little research done in other cultures but what there is does seem to indicate that findings do apply to other countries.
  • There are large individual differences in the effects. It is therefore difficult to make generalisations on the effects of the media on aggressive behaviour.
  • Ethical concerns with research. Much of the research on media violence involves children’s existing watching habits but there are ethical issues surrounding research in which children and young adults watch media violence since this can have negative and damaging effects on the participants.
Effects of Video Games and Computers on Young People
Effects of violent video games

Anderson and Dill (2000, see A2 Level Psychology pages 563–564) put forward a four-stage general aggression model to explain the conditions under which playing video games may lead to aggressive behaviour. It covers both short- and long-term effects: When aggressive people play a violent video game this arouses feelings of anger and bodily arousal. This leads to aggressive thoughts, possible involving revenge. The individual then goes through an appraisal process in which he or she interprets the situation and the consequences of behaving aggressively. The individual then decides whether to behave aggressively or non-aggressively.

Notice that it is usually aggressive individuals who respond with aggression. These people have cognitions (thoughts) that encourage violent reactions and believe that the best way of solving problems is through using aggression.

This model suggests that every time an aggressive person plays a violent video game it reinforces the following:

o Watchfulness for enemies.
o Aggressive action against others.
o Expectations that others will behave aggressively (hostile expectation bias).
o Positive attitudes towards the use of violence.
o Beliefs that violent solutions are effective and appropriate.

Effects of other types of video games

Video games tend to reinforce unfortunate stereotypes about gender and race. However, Jansz and Martis (2007, see A2 Level Psychology page 563) found female characters appearing as often as males in leading roles in 12 recent videos. Nevertheless, there was an emphasis on the sexuality of the females characters (e.g. a focus on breasts) and all the characters were white.

Gentile and Anderson (2003, see A2 Level Psychology page 563) point out the positive effects of some video games in encouraging learning and education. They can also help in young children’s socialisation processes. Children who do not play them may become socially isolated.

RESEARCH EVIDENCE ON THE EFFECTS OF VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES

  • Anderson and Bushman (2001, see A2 Level Psychology pages 563–564) conducted a meta-analysis of the effects of violent video games and came to the following conclusions, all of which support their model:
  • Situational cues provided by violent video games (e.g. guns, knives) are associated with aggressive behaviour. The effect was just as strong in males and females, young and old.
  • Exposure to violent video games increases aggressive thoughts.
  • Exposure to violent video games produces feelings (emotions) of aggression and bodily arousal.
  • Unsworth, Devilly, and Ward (2007, see A2 Level Psychology page 564) found that participants with aggressive personalities prone to aggression were most likely to have increased anger ratings when playing a violent video game (other participants either decreased in anger ratings or stayed the same).
  • Bushman and Anderson (2002, see A2 Level Psychology page 564) exposed participants to violent or non-violent video games and found that those exposed to violent games expected characters to act aggressively even when their actions were ambiguous. This is known as a hostile expectation bias.
  • Carnagey and Anderson (2005, see A2 Level Psychology page 564) found that rewarding violence in a video game increased hostile emotion, aggressive thinking, and aggressive behaviour. Punishing it also led to increased hostile emotion but did not increase aggressive thinking or aggressive behaviour.
  • Ferguson (2007, see A2 Level Psychology page 565) carried out a meta-analysis of violent video games, looking particularly at the year in which they were produced. He found that they increased aggressive behaviour, aggressive thoughts, aggressive emotions, and physiological responses but no more in later than in earlier video games. The effects were greater in older than in younger people.
  • Persky and Blascovich (2007, see A2 Level Psychology page 565) found the effects of violent video games were greater if played in a realistic environment (a virtual world) than on a computer.
  • Barlett, Harris, and Baldassaro (2007, see A2 Level Psychology page 565) showed that the more people play these games the more they show aggression and hostility.
  • Grusser, Thalemann, and Griffiths (2007, see A2 Level Psychology page 565) demonstrated a 12% rate of addiction to video games in a large sample of adolescents but the addicts were no more aggressive in real life.

EVALUATION

  • Research findings have revealed significant information:
  • The effects of playing violent video games depend on the situation and the personality of the player.
  • It has several effects: increased arousal, hostile emotions, and aggressive behaviour.
  • It can lead to a hostile expectation bias.
  • The effects are greater when the graphics are more realistic.
  • There is evidence of addiction but it is not clear if it leads to more aggressive behaviour.
  • There are several limitations to the research:
  • It shows only short-term effects.
  • Effects on behaviour other than free play after playing the games have not been investigated.
  • A lot of studies are correlational and therefore do not show cause and effect. It is possible that aggressive individuals are drawn to very violent games and their responses are a result of their personality, not the games.
  • There are ethical considerations with playing these games even under controlled conditions. They may encourage anti-social behaviour.

So What Does This Mean?

There has been a huge amount of research done on the effect of the media on anti-social behaviour and the findings have been extremely controversial. On the one hand we have those who say that the media is a convenient scapegoat for the ills of society; a whipping horse that has been cynically blamed for a variety of horrific killings, from Jamie Bulger to the Columbine School massacre. It helps, so this argument goes, to detract attention away from the real causes of social ills—society itself and families in particular. On the other side we have those who believe passionately that we are steadily corrupting our children with the constant exposure we allow them to violence in all forms of the media, but especially through films, television, and violent video games, and that we would be well advised to censor these heavily.