Table 1

Mean-Level Change of INT and EXTacross Four Years

Year 1 / Year 2 / Year 3 / Year 4 / Gender / Time / Gender X Time
Mean / SD / Mean / SD / Mean / SD / Mean / SD
Internalizing Symptoms
Major Depression
Boys / 6.31a / 3.79 / 6.26b / 3.94 / 5.78c / 4.16 / 5.52d / 4.03 / F(1)=1.56, p=.21;d=.17 / F(3)=2.05, p=.11;d=.19 / F(3)=3.92**, p=.01;d=.27
Girls / 7.00 / 5.27 / 5.96 / 4.61 / 6.18 / 5.00 / 6.90 / 5.10
Combined / 6.61 / 4.50 / 6.12 / 4.25 / 5.95 / 4.54 / 6.13 / 4.57
Social Phobia
Boys / 7.71e / 3.95 / 7.92f / 4.10 / 7.32g / 3.98 / 7.35h / 4.16 / F(1)=13.84***, / F(3)=.74, / F(3)=2.49,
Girls / 9.25 / 5.24 / 8.80 / 4.47 / 9.18 / 4.79 / 9.57 / 4.72 / p <.001;d=.51 / p=.53;d=.11 / p=.06;d=.22
Combined / 8.38 / 4.62 / 8.31 / 4.28 / 8.14 / 4.44 / 8.33 / 4.54
Panic Disorder
Boys / 3.50i / 3.43 / 3.04j / 3.22 / 2.21k / 2.80 / 1.91l / 2.36 / F(1)=1.09, / F(3)=8.12***, / F(3)=4.01**,
Girls / 3.81 / 4.27 / 2.71 / 3.09 / 3.05 / 3.40 / 2.72 / 3.33 / p=.30;d=.14 / p <.001;d=.39 / p=.01;d=.27
Combined / 3.64 / 3.82 / 2.89 / 3.16 / 2.58 / 3.10 / 2.26 / 2.85
Separation Anxiety Disorder
Boys / 3.25m / 2.97 / 2.92n / 2.95 / 2.06o / 2.31 / 1.71p / 1.81 / F(1)=.70, / F(3)=20.05***, / F(3)=1.48,
Girls / 3.60 / 3.56 / 2.72 / 2.73 / 2.46 / 2.35 / 2.21 / 2.46 / p=.40;d=.11 / p <.001;d=.61 / p=.22;d=.17
Combined / 3.41 / 3.24 / 2.83 / 2.85 / 2.23 / 2.33 / 1.93 / 2.13
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Boys / 5.19q / 2.84 / 4.82r / 2.78 / 4.17s / 2.47 / 3.97t / 2.64 / F(1)=6.80*, / F(3)=6.54***, / F(3)=3.49*,
Girls / 5.86 / 3.55 / 5.12 / 3.44 / 5.27 / 3.65 / 5.34 / 3.37 / p=.01;d=.36 / p <.001;d=.35 / p=.02;d=.26
Combined / 5.49 / 3.18 / 4.96 / 3.10 / 4.66 / 3.09 / 4.57 / 3.05
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Boys / 4.43u / 3.14 / 3.65v / 3.02 / 2.97w / 2.86 / 2.74x / 2.75 / F(1)=.01, / F(3)=21.29***, / F(3)=1.81,
Girls / 4.43 / 3.69 / 3.12 / 2.85 / 3.21 / 3.11 / 2.93 / 2.94 / p=.94; d=.00 / p <.001;d=.63 / p=.14;d=.18
Combined / 4.43 / 3.38 / 3.41 / 2.95 / 3.08 / 2.97 / 2.83 / 2.83
Externalizing Symptoms1
Conduct Disorder
Boys / .08y / .32 / .15z / .42 / .12aa / .34 / .09bb / .26 / F(1)=1.97, p=.16;d=.19 / F(3)=1.41, p=.24;d=.17 / F(3)=1.44, p=.23;d=.17
Girls / .06 / .20 / .76 / .24 / .03 / .18 / .08 / .25
Combined / .07 / .27 / .12 / .35 / .08 / .28 / .09 / .25
Oppositional-Defiant Disorder
Boys / .34cc / .56 / .36dd / .57 / .34ee / .62 / .36ff / .55 / F(1)=.00, p=.99;d=.00 / F(3)=2.29, p=.08; d=.21 / F(3)=.18, p=.91;d=.06
Girls / .25 / .48 / .33 / .50 / .55 / .51 / .38 / .53
Combined / .30 / .53 / .35 / .54 / .34 / .57 / .37 / .54
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Boys / .88gg / .92 / .98hh / .95 / .85ii / .91 / .89jj / .91 / F(1)=2.67, / F(3)=.88, / F(3)=1.84,
Girls / .81 / .82 / .76 / .84 / .65 / .72 / .65 / .84 / p=.10;d=.22 / p=.45;d=.13 / p=.14;d=.19
Combined / .85 / .88 / .88 / .91 / .76 / .84 / .79 / .89
aF(1)=1.62, p=.21;d=.16 / bF(1)=.29, p=.59;d=.06 / cF(1)=.48, p=.49;d=.09
dF(1)=5.30*, p=.02;d=.31
eF(1)=7.73*, p=.01; d=.34 / fF(1)=2.58, p=.11;d=.21 / gF(1)=11.06**, p=.00;d=.43
hF(1)=14.52***, p<.001; d=.50
iF(1)=.45, p=.50; d=.09 / jF(1)=.67, p=.41;d=.11 / kF(1)=4.47*, p=.04;d=.27
lF(1)=4.68*, p=.03; d=.29
mF(1)=.77, p=.38; d=.11 / nF(1)=.32, p=.57;d=.06 / oF(1)=1.77, p=.19;d=.17
pF(1)=.3.23, p=.07; d=.24
qF(1)=2.96, p=.09; d=.21 / rF(1)=.57, p=.45;d=.09 / sF(1)=7.92*, p=.01;d=.36
tF(1)=12.06**, p=.00; d=.46
uF(1)=.00, p=.99; d=.00 / vF(1)=1.96, p=.16;d=.18 / wF(1)=.42, p=.52;d=.09
xF(1)=.26, p=.61; d=.06
yF(1)=.46, p=.50; d=.09 / zF(1)=3.09, p=.08;d=.23 / aaF(1)=6.28*, p=.01;d=.32
bbF(1)=.22, p=.64; d=.06
ccF(1)=1.88, p=.17; d=.17 / ddF(1)=.17, p=.68;d=.06 / eeF(1)=.05, p=.82;d=.00
ffF(1)=.08, p=.78; d=.00
ggF(1)=.48, p=.49; d=.09 / hhF(1)=3.64, p=.06;d=.25 / iiF(1)=3.63, p=.06;d=.25
jjF(1)=4.38*, p=.04; d=.28

Note: 1All analyses performed on Log-transformed externalizing scores. Subscripted letters indicate a test for gender differences and significance levels for these differences at each year.** *p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05

Table 2

Percentage of Participants Who Exhibited Significant Individual-Level Change in INT and EXT in Each Year

%(N) / Individual-Level Change / Gender Differences
N / Decrease / Stable / Increase / 2(2)Value / p / 2(1)Value / p
Internalizing Symptoms
Major Depression
Change from year 1 to year 2
Boys / 134 / 10%(15) / 67%(105) / 9%(14) / 78.28*** / <.001
Girls / 110 / 19%(23) / 65%(79) / 7%(8) / 165.36*** / <.001
Combined / 244 / 14%(38) / 66%(184) / 8%(22) / 218.12*** / <.001 / 4.68 / .10
Change from year 1 to year 3
Boys / 137 / 9%(14) / 71%(110) / 8%(13) / 62.55*** / <.001
Girls / 108 / 16%(19) / 64%(77) / 10%(12) / 136.83*** / <.001
Combined / 245 / 12%(33) / 68%(187) / 9%(25) / 185.14*** / <.001 / 3.23 / .20
Change from year 1 to year 4
Boys / 129 / 14%(22) / 60%(94) / 8%(13) / 145.58*** / <.001
Girls / 102 / 12%(15) / 59%(71) / 13%(16) / 138.65*** / <.001
Combined / 231 / 13%(37) / 60%(165) / 11%(29) / 275.74*** / <.001 / 1.71 / .43
Social Phobia
Change from year 1 to year 2
Boys / 133 / 6%(10) / 72%(113) / 6%(10) / 28.21*** / <.001
Girls / 109 / 13%(16) / 68%(82) / 9%(11) / 94.28*** / <.001
Combined / 242 / 9%(26) / 70%(195) / 8%(21) / 108.03*** / <.001 / 4.02 / .13
Change from year 1 to year 3
Boys / 135 / 12%(18) / 65%(101) / 10%(16) / 116.39*** / <.001
Girls / 107 / 17%(21) / 60%(72) / 12%(14) / 182.13*** / <.001
Combined / 242 / 14%(39) / 63%(173) / 11%(30) / 288.35*** / <.001 / 2.01 / .37
Change from year 1 to year 4
Boys / 128 / 12%(18) / 58%(91) / 12%(19) / 154.16*** / <.001
Girls / 101 / 13%(16) / 54%(65) / 17%(20) / 202.84*** / <.001
Combined / 229 / 12%(34) / 56%(156) / 14%(39) / 350.46*** / <.001 / 1.31 / .52
Panic Disorder
Change from year 1 to year 2
Boys / 133 / 8%(12) / 71%(111) / 6%(10) / 37.90*** / <.001
Girls / 109 / 13%(16) / 72%(87) / 5%(6) / 71.25*** / <.001
Combined / 242 / 10%(28) / 72%(198) / 6%(16) / 100.43*** / <.001 / 2.12 / .35
Change from year 1 to year 3
Boys / 136 / 13%(20) / 71%(111) / 3%(5) / 84.36*** / <.001
Girls / 107 / 12%(14) / 70%(85) / 7%(8) / 61.27*** / <.001
Combined / 243 / 12%(34) / 71%(196) / 5%(13) / 141.52*** / <.001 / 1.76 / .41
Change from year 1 to year 4
Boys / 128 / 17%(27) / 61%(95) / 4%(6) / 185.28*** / <.001
Girls / 101 / 12%(14) / 65%(78) / 7%(9) / 72.11*** / <.001
Combined / 229 / 15%(41) / 63%(173) / 5%(15) / 241.50*** / <.001 / 3.25 / .20
Separation Anxiety Disorder
Change from year 1 to year 2
Boys / 133 / 14%(21) / 65%(101) / 7%(11) / 116.76*** / <.001
Girls / 109 / 14%(17) / 72%(87) / 4%(5) / 79.32*** / <.001
Combined / 242 / 14%(38) / 68%(188) / 6%(16) / 192.73*** / <.001 / 1.35 / .51
Change from year 1 to year 3
Boys / 136 / 22%(34) / 61%(95) / 5%(7) / 288.27*** / <.001
Girls / 107 / 17%(20) / 65%(79) / 7%(8) / 127.86*** / <.001
Combined / 243 / 20%(54) / 63%(174) / 5%(15) / 405.19*** / <.001 / 1.73 / .42
Change from year 1 to year 4
Boys / 128 / 24%(38) / 53%(83) / 5%(7) / 395.22*** / <.001
Girls / 101 / 17%(21) / 63%(76) / 3%(4) / 140.19*** / <.001
Combined / 229 / 21%(59) / 57%(159) / 4%(11) / 516.38*** / <.001 / 2.88 / .24
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Change from year 1 to year 2
Boys / 133 / 14%(22) / 62%(96) / 10%(15) / 153.17*** / <.001
Girls / 109 / 20%(24) / 63%(76) / 7%(9) / 187.88*** / <.001
Combined / 242 / 17%(46) / 62%(172) / 9%(24) / 331.64*** / <.001 / 1.55 / .46
Change from year 1 to year 3
Boys / 136 / 14%(22) / 70%(109) / 3%(5) / 105.66*** / <.001
Girls / 107 / 20%(24) / 55%(66) / 14%(17) / 259.22*** / <.001
Combined / 243 / 17%(46) / 63%(175) / 8%(22) / 317.65*** / <.001 / 13.94** / .00
Change from year 1 to year 4
Boys / 128 / 26%(40) / 51%(80) / 5%(8) / 444.63*** / <.001
Girls / 101 / 22%(26) / 49%(59) / 13%(16) / 304.39*** / <.001
Combined / 229 / 24%(66) / 50%(139) / 9%(24) / 721.30*** / <.001 / 5.71 / .06
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Change from year 1 to year 2
Boys / 132 / 17%(27) / 61%(95) / 6%(10) / 191.18*** / <.001
Girls / 109 / 22%(26) / 64%(77) / 5%(6) / 209.54*** / <.001
Combined / 241 / 19%(53) / 62%(172) / 6%(16) / 396.93*** / <.001 / .71 / .70
Change from year 1 to year 3
Boys / 135 / 22%(34) / 60%(93) / 5%(8) / 293.92*** / <.001
Girls / 107 / 26%(32) / 53%(64) / 9%(11) / 361.33*** / <.001
Combined / 242 / 24%(66) / 57%(157) / 7%(19) / 644.89*** / <.001 / 2.69 / .26
Change from year 1 to year 4
Boys / 135 / 22%(34) / 60%(93) / 5%(8) / 293.92*** / <.001
Girls / 101 / 27%(33) / 47%(57) / 9%(11) / 412.07*** / <.001
Combined / 228 / 26%(72) / 48%(133) / 8%(23) / 855.95*** / <.001 / .30 / .86
Externalizing Symptoms1
Conduct Disorder
Change from year 1 to year 2
Boys / 133 / 3%(5) / 70%(109) / 12%(19) / 77.12*** / <.001
Girls / 109 / 3%(4) / 78%(94) / 9%(11) / 26.61*** / <.001
Combined / 242 / 3%(9) / 73%(203) / 11%(30) / 99.40*** / <.001 / .98 / .61
Change from year 1 to year 3
Boys / 137 / 3%(5) / 76%(118) / 9%(14) / 34.51*** / <.001
Girls / 108 / 6%(7) / 81%(98) / 3%(3) / 7.09* / .03
Combined / 245 / 4%(12) / 78%(216) / 6%(17) / 26.15*** / <.001 / 5.95 / .05
Change from year 1 to year 4
Boys / 128 / 3%(5) / 72%(112) / 7%(11) / 20.78*** / <.001
Girls / 102 / 3%(4) / 74%(89) / 7%(9) / 17.78*** / <.001
Combined / 230 / 3%(9) / 73%(201) / 7%(20) / 38.55*** / <.001 / .00 / .99
Oppositional-Defiant Disorder
Change from year 1 to year 2
Boys / 133 / 10%(16) / 65%(102) / 10%(15) / 94.00*** / <.001
Girls / 109 / 7%(9) / 70%(85) / 12%(15) / 73.07*** / <.001
Combined / 242 / 9%(25) / 68%(187) / 11%(30) / 162.17*** / <.001 / 1.14 / .57
Change from year 1 to year 3
Boys / 137 / 15%(24) / 59%(92) / 14%(21) / 224.97*** / <.001
Girls / 107 / 9%(11) / 69%(83) / 11%(13) / 69.18*** / <.001
Combined / 244 / 13%(35) / 63%(175) / 12%(34) / 278.45*** / <.001 / 3.54 / .17
Change from year 1 to year 4
Boys / 128 / 11%(17) / 61%(95) / 10%(16) / 116.53*** / <.001
Girls / 101 / 9%(11) / 59%(71) / 16%(19) / 142.43*** / <.001
Combined / 229 / 10%(28) / 60%(166) / 13%(35) / 248.58*** / <.001 / 1.86 / .40
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Change from year 1 to year 2
Boys / 133 / 4%(6) / 75%(117) / 6%(10) / 16.24*** / <.001
Girls / 110 / 9%(11) / 76%(92) / 6%(7) / 32.81*** / <.001
Combined / 243 / 6%(17) / 76%(209) / 6%(17) / 41.36*** / <.001 / 2.84 / .24
Change from year 1 to year 3
Boys / 137 / 10%(15) / 71%(110) / 8%(12) / 63.71*** / <.001
Girls / 108 / 15%(18) / 69%(83) / 6%(7) / 97.30*** / <.001
Combined / 245 / 12%(33) / 70%(193) / 7%(19) / 151.77*** / <.001 / 1.96 / .38
Change from year 1 to year 4
Boys / 128 / 6%(10) / 65%(102) / 10%(16) / 68.81*** / <.001
Girls / 101 / 15%(18) / 61%(74) / 7%(9) / 116.47*** / <.001
Combined / 229 / 10%(28) / 64%(176) / 9%(25) / 159.50*** / <.001 / 5.60 / .06

Notes.1All analyses performed on Log-transformed externalizing scores. *** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05

Abbreviations: RCI, reliable change index. Increase, has passed RCI in the positive direction; stable, has passed neither criterion; decrease, has passed RCI in the negative direction.

Table 3

Correlations between INT and EXT by Gender over Time

Internalizing Symptoms
1. / 2. / 3. / 4.
  1. Major Depression Year 1
/ ---- / .57*** / .45*** / .45***
  1. Major Depression Year 2
/ .62*** / ---- / .73*** / .62***
  1. Major Depression Year 3
/ .62*** / .60*** / ---- / .75***
  1. Major Depression Year 4
/ .38*** / .48*** / .59*** / ----
5. / 6. / 7. / 8.
  1. Social Phobia Year 1
/ ---- / .57*** / .40*** / .36**
  1. Social PhobiaYear 2
/ .63*** / ---- / .55*** / .52***
  1. Social Phobia Year 3
/ .55*** / .58*** / ---- / .54***
  1. Social Phobia Year 4
/ .33*** / .47*** / .62*** / ----
9. / 10. / 11. / 12.
  1. Panic Disorder Year 1
/ ---- / .55*** / .39*** / .34***
  1. Panic DisorderYear 2
/ .58*** / ---- / .52*** / .28***
  1. Panic Disorder Year 3
/ .57*** / .56*** / ---- / .35***
  1. Panic Disorder Year 4
/ .29** / .25*** / .24** / ----
13. / 14. / 15. / 16.
  1. Separation Anxiety Disorder Year 1
/ ---- / .57*** / .36*** / .33**
  1. Separation Anxiety DisorderYear 2
/ .48*** / ---- / .56*** / .27**
  1. Separation Anxiety Disorder Year 3
/ .43*** / .63*** / ---- / .36***
  1. Separation Anxiety Disorder Year 4
/ .16 / .31** / .51*** / ----
17. / 18. / 19. / 20.
  1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder Year 1
/ ---- / .49*** / .41*** / .23*
  1. Generalized Anxiety DisorderYear 2
/ .48*** / ---- / .64*** / .54***
  1. Generalized Anxiety DisorderYear 3
/ .48*** / .52*** / ---- / .63***
  1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder Year 4
/ .29** / .31*** / .50*** / ----
21. / 22. / 23. / 24.
  1. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Year 1
/ ---- / .39*** / .24* / .18
  1. Obsessive Compulsive DisorderYear 2
/ .50*** / ---- / .52*** / .49***
  1. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Year 3
/ .53*** / .53*** / ---- / .54***
  1. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Year 4
/ .28** / .33*** / .51*** / ----
Externalizing Symptoms1
25. / 26. / 27. / 28.
  1. Conduct Disorder Year 1
/ ---- / .53*** / .19 / .57***
  1. Conduct DisorderYear 2
/ .52*** / ---- / .40*** / .74***
  1. Conduct DisorderYear 3
/ .47*** / .41*** / ---- / .40***
  1. Conduct DisorderYear 4
/ .58*** / .52*** / .56*** / ----
29. / 30. / 31. / 32.
  1. Oppositional-Defiant Disorder Year 1
/ ---- / .51*** / .62*** / .32**
  1. Oppositional-Defiant DisorderYear 2
/ .64*** / ---- / .56*** / .59***
  1. Oppositional-Defiant DisorderYear 3
/ .46*** / .60*** / ---- / .54***
  1. Oppositional-Defiant DisorderYear 4
/ .54*** / .68*** / .57*** / ----
33. / 34. / 35. / 36.
  1. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Year 1
/ ---- / .71*** / .59*** / .57***
  1. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderYear 2
/ .80*** / ---- / .73*** / .69***
  1. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Year 3
/ .68*** / .80*** / ---- / .78***
  1. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Year 4
/ .72*** / .79*** / .80*** / ----

Notes.1All analyses performed on Log-transformed externalizing scores. Correlations among females are in the shaded area; among males, in the non-shaded area. *** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05

Table 4

Growth Factor Mean, Variance, and Covariance Estimates, along with Residual Scores1

Level / Change / Level*Change Covariance / Residual Variances2 / Model Fit / Gender Differences
Mean / Variance / Mean / Variance / Y1 / Y2 / Y3 / Y4 / CFI / RMSEA / 2(1)Value / p
Internalizing Symptoms
Social Phobia
Boys / 7.78*** / 12.55*** / -.10 / 1.43*** / -2.15** / .19 / .43 / .37 / .29
Girls / 8.94*** / 15.82*** / .17 / 1.49** / -2.30* / .43 / .36 / .45 / .31
Combined / 8.37*** / 14.11*** / -.02 / 1.41*** / -2.01** / .34 / .38 / .40 / .30 / 1.00 / .00 / .78 / .38
Panic Disorder
Boys / 3.51*** / 7.76*** / -.056*** / .24 / -1.44** / .37 / .47 / .59 / .80
Girls / 3.38*** / 9.47*** / -.24 / .43 / -1.66* / .48 / .36 / .59 / .71
Combined / 3.51*** / 8.63*** / -.43*** / .36 / -1.56*** / .42 / .42 / .58 / .71 / 1.00 / .02 / .48 / .49
Separation Anxiety Disorder
Boys / 3.25*** / 5.77*** / -.51*** / .59** / -1.43*** / .40 / .55 / .49 / .30
Girls / 3.32*** / 6.61*** / -.40*** / .38 / -1.36** / .50 / .39 / .52 / .69
Combined / 3.31*** / 5.94*** / -.48*** / .41** / -1.22*** / .47 / .47 / .48 / .53 / .93 / .11 / .24 / .63
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Boys / 5.19*** / 4.49*** / -.43*** / .37* / -.70* / .44 / .55 / .45 / .50
Girls / 5.57*** / 7.57*** / -.08 / .92** / -1.10 / .44 / .43 / .43 / .23
Combined / 5.37*** / 5.83*** / -.29*** / .63*** / -.82* / .44 / .48 / .42 / .34 / .98 / .06 / 3.06 / .08
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Boys / 4.35*** / 6.08*** / -.59*** / .47* / -.98* / .39 / .51 / .46 / .45
Girls / 3.82*** / 4.69** / -.31* / .54 / -.57 / .68 / .48 / .52 / .31
Combined / 4.17*** / 5.52*** / -.48*** / .55** / -.88* / .53 / .50 / .50 / .38 / .97 / .07 / .57 / .45

Notes.1Model estimation conducted with FIML estimator which accounts for missing data.2Standardized values reported. *** p < .001, ** p < .01, * p < .05

Table 5

Correlations between Distress Tolerance Intercept with INT Intercept and Slope1

Distress Tolerance2 Level with / Model Fit / Gender Differences
Level3 / Change3 / CFI / RMSEA / 2(1)Value / p
Internalizing Symptoms
Social Phobia
Boys / -.09 / -.17
Girls / -.38* / .21
Combined / -.24* / .01 / 1.00 / .01 / 99.83*** / <.001
Panic Disorder
Boys / -.26 / .08
Girls / -.46*** / .34
Combined / -.36** / .20 / 1.00 / .01 / 42.00*** / <.001
Separation Anxiety Disorder
Boys / -.07 / -.19
Girls / -.40** / .27
Combined / -.22* / .02 / .92 / .06 / 51.54*** / <.001
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Boys / -.11 / -.24
Girls / -.40** / .09
Combined / -.26* / -.08 / .97 / .04 / 90.40*** / <.001
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Boys / -.15 / -.29
Girls / -.24 / -.07
Combined / -.19 / -.18 / .95 / .05 / 74.07*** / <.001

Notes.1Model estimation conducted with FIML estimator which accounts for missing data. 2Measured as seconds to termination. 3Standardized values reported. 4All analyses performed on log-transformed EXT scores.*** p < .001, ** p < .01, * p < .05