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Hilarski 10/3/2018

Critical Thinking in Child Welfare Training: Literature Review Summary

  • A literature search (EBSCOhost PsycINFO database – queried: critical thinking; child welfare; training) found no articles or books that addressed critical thinking training for child welfare caseworkers.
  • The literature review in the same database did find empirical information that supported critical thinking training for nurses(Pond, Bradshaw et al. 1991; Elliott 1996; Gaines 1996; Lipman and Deatrick 1997; Oermann 1997; Videbeck 1997; Whiteside 1997; Fowler 1998; Schell 1998; Scheffer and Rubenfield 2000; Alfaro-LeFevre 2001; Daly 2001; Harbison 2001; MacDonald and Hilton 2001; Rapps, Riegel et al. 2001; Castellino and Schuster 2002; Jones 2002; King and Shell 2002; Simpson and Courtney 2002; Williams, Sewell et al. 2002; All, Huycke et al. 2003; Staib 2003; Akinsanya and Williams 2004; Ferrario 2004; Gilboy and Kane 2004; Glendon and Ulrich 2004; Williams 2004; Griggs 2005; Longest 2005; Sewchuk 2005; Green 2006; Hicks-Moore and Pastirik 2006; Hill 2006; Lee, Chan et al. 2006; Tanner 2006; Worrell and Profetto-McGrath 2006; Forneris and Peden-McAlpine 2007; Gallagher 2007; Riddell 2007), students(Pond, Bradshaw et al. 1991; Gaines 1996; Abegglen and O'Neill Conger 1997; Alter and Egan 1997; Birgegard and Lindquist 1998; Schell 1998; Sellappah, Hussey et al. 1998; Magnussen, Ishida et al. 2000; Morales-Mann and Kaitell 2001; Castellino and Schuster 2002; King and Shell 2002; Leaver-Dunn, Harrelson et al. 2002; Peters, Smith et al. 2002; All, Huycke et al. 2003; Staib 2003; Akinsanya and Williams 2004; Forneris 2004; Glendon and Ulrich 2004; Hsu 2004; Hill 2006; Warren, Connors et al. 2006; Worrell and Profetto-McGrath 2006; Taylor and Wros 2007), and military employees(Griggs 2005; Gerras 2006).
  • The literature suggests that active learning promotes critical thinking (Elliott 1996; Hayward, Noonan et al. 1999; Winter, Matters et al. 2002; Burbach, Matkin et al. 2004; Haidet, Morgan et al. 2004; Sewchuk 2005; Russell, Comello et al. 2007)
  • Active learning may include such teaching methods as concept mapping (Gaines 1996; Daley, Shaw et al. 1999; West, Pomeroy et al. 2000; Plotnick 2001; Castellino and Schuster 2002; King and Shell 2002; Paul and Elder 2002; All, Huycke et al. 2003; Wheeler and Collins 2003; Akinsanya and Williams 2004; Hsu 2004; Ellermann, Kataoka-Yahiro et al. 2006; Hicks-Moore and Pastirik 2006; Hill 2006; Fonteyn 2007; Kostovich, Poradzisz et al. 2007; Taylor and Wros 2007), logic modeling (Alter and Egan 1997; MacDonald and Hilton 2001; Forneris 2004; Longest 2005; Medeiros, Butkus et al. 2005; Ellermann, Kataoka-Yahiro et al. 2006; Otto, Novielli et al. 2006; Forneris and Peden-McAlpine 2007), problem based (Williams 2004; Williams 2004), and case based instruction (Leighton and Sheldon 1997; Gilboy and Kane 2004).
  • The theoretical framework for active learning is constructivist learning theory (Crespi and Generali 1995; Mills, Bonner et al. 2006; Gallagher 2007), cognitive continuum theory (Cohen, Freeman et al. 1998; Harbison 2001), and experiential learning theory (Dane 2000; Maudsley and Strivens 2000; Armstrong and Parsa-Parsi 2005; Sewchuk 2005)

Suggestions for Child Welfare Training

  • The literature suggests that Child Welfare workers involved in CT training would benefit from teaching methods that include concept maps, logic models, problem based and case based practice issues.These teaching techniques are found to increase the frequency of critical thinking strategies, improve the accuracy of assessment, and ultimately appropriate interventions in real world venues (Cohen & Freeman, 1997).
  • As critical thinking skills develop in the trained supervisor, for example, the ability to invite and empathize with other points of view will emerge empowering co-workers to contribute to the solution of issues and engage in CT increasing job satisfaction (Gerras, 2006).
  • Dynamic, multidimensional, and creative critical thinking is an essential part of effective practice and service delivery. The use of various types of logic models and concept mapping encourage the professional to engage in hypothesizing, data gathering, evaluation, andfocusing on the client’s entire context (Ellermann, et al., 2006).
  • Child welfare workers make critical decisions regarding their client’s safety and well-being. Information gathered to support their decisions may be complex and confusing. They need skills to effectively collect and evaluate data. Critical thinking is suggested as an essential decision making skill. Logic models, concept mapping, and problem and case based training methods are found to encourage the development of critical thinking that benefits both the consumer and the service provider(Lehman and Nisbett 1990).

Abegglen, J. and C. O'Neill Conger (1997). "Critical thinking in nursing: classroom tactics that work." Journal of Nursing Education36(10): 452-8.

Critical thinking ability is one of the required outcomes of nursing education and content coverage is a focus of the past (National League for Nursing, 1996). As educators, we must attend to how we define critical thinking, what educational methods support its development, and how we can assure that students have achieved some acceptable level of critical thinking skill (Tanner, 1993). This article describes the emergent development of one critical thinking format in a Community Health Nursing course. Rather than approaching critical thinking from a theoretical perspective or focusing on one type of assignment or experience as a tool to foster critical thinking development in nursing courses, this article shares with the reader a complete package. Problems, pitfalls, new insights, and changes are shared as they developed through the teaching of a semester-long Community Health Nursing course. The authors hope their experiences give faculty ideas about how to infuse critical thinking into nursing curricula.

Akinsanya, C. and M. Williams (2004). "Concept mapping for meaningful learning." Nurse Educ Today24(1): 41-6.

The complexity of teaching, learning and assessment strategies remains a problem in nurse education especially with the changes in new curricula. This article explains one solution, which was considered and explored prior to implementation for the assessment of an inquiry-based module in nurse education. The overall aim for selecting this method of assessment was to provide consolidation of prior learning from the core content of the module and to give the students an opportunity to gain further, wide and varied knowledge on a number of concepts in a short period. Concept mapping has proved to be one of the most challenging learning experiences for nursing students. It has been identified as a stimulating learning and assessing tool as predominantly acknowledged over the last year, by nursing students on the Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) BSc and Dip HE nursing education programmes, and also nurse educators who have the responsibility of facilitating the learners.

Alfaro-LeFevre, R. (2001). "Thinking critically about your assignments." Nurse Educator26(1): 15-6.

speaks to attitude toward thinking critically about teaching assignments

All, A. C., L. I. Huycke, et al. (2003). "Instructional tools for nursing education: concept maps." Nurse Educator Perspective24(6): 311-7.

Students must deal with vast amounts of information in multiple formats, yet their ability to organize and link data in a logical way varies widely. Concept mapping offers nurse educators a useful tool to assist nursing students in wading through and critically analyzing this information more effectively. This article explains concept/cognitive mapping as a teaching strategy for several aspects of course work. Types and examples of maps developed by undergraduate and graduate students are used as illustrations and points of discussion. Illustrations are assessed according to type of map, information presented, aspects of the maps that facilitate meaningful learning, and what information is missing. Strategies for remediation to help learners assimilate new information are included. Finally, implementation of mapping in nursing education and ideas for research in concept/cognitive mapping are discussed.

Alter, C. and M. Egan (1997). "Logic modeling: A tool for teaching critical thinking in social work practice." Journal of Social Work Education33(1): 85-102.

The article describes how logic models are used to teach critical thinking in social work courses. Logic models are constructs of concise, carefully worded statements that together provide a comprehensive cognitive structure of a change process, whether it be a program or a clinical intervention. The statements focus on the targets, means, and ends of a purposeful intervention. A logic model specifies that, given a problem or need which is recognized and deemed solvable, there must be a concrete goal. Logic modeling may seem a merely mechanical exercise, although it is quite complex. To help students initially gain a basic understanding of logic modeling , a simple logic model that has seven elements, namely, problem or need, goal, objectives, inputs, methods, results and outcomes, linked together in a logical chain, has been provided. To further the understanding, a complex logic model format with the three objectives of problem, goal and outcomes, has also been described. One unique aspect of logic modeling, and one that can be useful for social work, is that causal chains can be constructed to span multiple levels. Various modeling interventions across multiple levels have been represented

Armstrong, E. and R. Parsa-Parsi (2005). "How can physicians' learning styles drive educational planning?" Acad Med80(7): 680-4.

As changes in health care delivery systems and in the global burden of disease call for a reassessment of how tomorrow's physicians should be educated--indeed, for a reconsideration of the diversity of roles the physician should play--there is an immediate need to produce continuing medical education (CME) programs with real impact. Curriculum planners are questioning both the content of medical education and the methods of instruction and training. The product, or content, and the mechanism for its delivery have been defined and discussed, but a significant body of literature has shown that new knowledge does not necessarily lead to new behavior. Ample evidence exists in the CME literature to support the implementation of more active and self-directed learning strategies to promote the desired change in behaviors. The question, then, that is the focus of this article is how educational planning might be better guided by an understanding of how physicians learn within the continuing medical education domain. Revisiting the principles of David Kolb's Learning Styles Inventory, the authors propose applying his experiential learning model to overall curriculum design work. The authors argue that promoting the application of all learning styles in sequence in an educational encounter is a most desirable approach, and that this approach to learning could extend far beyond individual learners to influence how every component of medical education is designed, from the individual lecture or class activity to entire courses or programs.

Birgegard, G. and U. Lindquist (1998). "Change in student attitudes to medical school after the introduction of problem-based learning in spite of low ratings." Medical Education32(1): 46-9.

Students' attitudes to, and opinions of, their studies at medical school were investigated with the help of a questionnaire. They were asked to what extent the medical school encouraged independent, critical thinking, problem-solving skills, decision-making, studying outside the textbook and other behaviours and skills that teachers in higher education usually put forward as important. It was found that students generally had a low opinion of the extent to which their education encouraged such virtues, mean figures ranging between 3.5 and 4.6 on a 10-grade scale. The students felt that their studies to a large extent encouraged focus on details and preparation for examinations. The questionnaire was given to the students after 2 1/2 years of traditional preclinical studies and at the end of the first clinical year. There were significant but numerically small differences for some of the items at the end of the year. However, when problem-based learning (PBL) was introduced during the first clinical year, there was a substantial change: there were now significant and numerically larger differences for seven of the nine items, even though the students were asked to give their opinion of the whole of their time at medical school on both occasions, not only of the last year. There were no other changes in the curriculum or the teaching methods other than the introduction of PBL. The change in attitudes did not depend on the student's appreciation of PBL; students' opinion of PBL was low, indicating that most of them disliked it.

Burbach, M. E., G. S. Matkin, et al. (2004). "Teaching critical thinking in an introductory leadership course utilizing active learning strategies: A confirmatory study." College Student Journal38(3): 482-493.

Critical thinking is often seen as a universal goal of higher education but is seldom confirmed as an outcome. This study was conducted to determine whether an introductory level college leadership course that encouraged active learning increased critical thinking skills. A pre- and post-assessment of critical thinking skills was conducted using the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. Significant increases were found in the Deduction and Interpretation subtests, and total Critical Thinking. Student engagement in active learning techniques within the context of studying interpersonal skills for leadership appeared to increase critical thinking

Castellino, A. R. and P. M. Schuster (2002). "Evaluation of outcomes in nursing students using clinical concept map care plans." Nurse Educator27(4): 149-50.

Cohen, M. S., J. T. Freeman, et al. (1998). Critical thinking skills in tactical decision making: A model and a training strategy. Making decisions under stress: Implications for individual and team training. Cannon-Bowers, A. Janis and E. Salas. Washington, DC, US American Psychological Association: 155-189.

(from the chapter) Decision makers must gauge the time available for collecting and analyzing information and usually must act based on an incomplete picture of the situation. The US Navy's Tactical Decision Making Under Stress program encompasses several approaches to this problem. The approach described here has as its direct focus decision-making processes in novel or unexpected situations. This chapter presents a model of real-world decision making under time stress and contrasts it with alternative conceptualizations. The model is based on naturalistic observations of experienced decision makers in real-world contexts and on cognitive theory. An overview of a critical thinking skills training strategy based on this model is provided. The strategy uses instruction, demonstration, and practice to teach naval officers methods for identifying and handling qualitatively different kinds of uncertainty in assessments and plans. Experimental tests of the training at 2 training facilities with active-duty naval officers are evaluated. The effects of this training on decision-making processes, on accuracy of situation assessment, and on appropriateness of action are examined. Conclusions and lessons learned from the research are drawn, including possible extensions to other domains.

Crespi, T. D. and M. M. Generali (1995). "Constructivist developmental theory and therapy: implications for counseling adolescents." Adolescence30(119): 735-43.

Constructivist developmental theory and therapy refers to the integration of developmental theory within the shared context of counseling theory and practice. Drawing on the co-constructivist framework of psychologist Allen E. Ivey, developmental theory and therapy are highlighted within the context of the mental health needs of adolescents experiencing aberrant behaviors and/or significant psychological disturbances.

Daley, B. J., C. R. Shaw, et al. (1999). "Concept maps: a strategy to teach and evaluate critical thinking." J Nurs Educ38(1): 42-7.

The purpose of this article is to describe a study that implemented concept maps as a methodology to teach and evaluate critical thinking. Students in six senior clinical groups were taught to use concept maps. Students created three concept maps over the course of the semester. Data analysis demonstrated a group mean score of 40.38 on the first concept map and 135.55 on the final concept map, for a difference of 98.16. The paired t value comparing the first concept map to the final concept map was -5.69. The data indicated a statistically significant difference between the first and final maps. This difference is indicative of the students' increase in conceptual and critical thinking.

Daly, W. M. (2001). "The development of an alternative method in the assessment of critical thinking as an outcome of nursing education." J Adv Nurs36(1): 120-30.

RATIONALE: Critical thinking is currently a highly valued educational outcome throughout the educational spectrum, but particularly so in relation to higher and professional education. Nursing education worldwide is also embracing the construct critical thinking as a desirable educational outcome, to the extent that some commentators refer to the importance of critical thinking in nursing as a given. The body of evidence relating to the impact that nursing education has upon the development of critical thinking is currently inconclusive. Many commentators claim that this may be because the instruments used in many studies are not sufficiently domain-specific. STUDY AIMS: The primary purpose of this descriptive-illuminative study was to explore and develop an alternative domain-specific method for identifying critical thinking in student nurses' reasoning processes. DESIGN: A longitudinal multimethod design incorporating across-method triangulation has been utilized for this purpose. Data collection from a group of student nurses involved the combination of the Watson and Glaser (1991) critical thinking appraisal test and a researcher developed think aloud technique incorporating a videotaped client simulation, a cognitive task and stimulated recall strategy. FINDINGS: Findings indicate no significant differences in pre and postprogramme Watson-Glaser mean scores. With regard to the think aloud evidence the sample consistently displayed evidence of reasoning that reflected an absolutist epistemology portraying limited evidence of critical thinking. In instances where more complex reasoning was demonstrated there was evidence to suggest that metacognitive strategies may contribute to this phenomenon. CONCLUSIONS: The findings make a further contribution to the assessment of critical thinking and raise interesting challenges to future curriculum development in nursing education, assessment of learning and nursing practice.

Dane, B. (2000). "Child welfare workers: An innovative approach for interacting with secondary trauma." Journal of Sockal Work Education36(1): 27-38.

Although child welfare workers (CWW) are assigned a critical role to protect children, little focus has been placed on helping them cope with stress and secondary trauma that can occur when they observe and hear the affect-laden experiences described by clients. This article summarizes two focus groups which provided data to develop a two day training module for CWW to gain knowledge and skills through didactic and experiential learning. The model offers coping strategies to respond to job stress and vicarious traumatization. Benefits and implications for agency and school collaboration are discussed