17
IB HISTORY HIGHER LEVEL OPTION 5
ASPECTS OF THE HISTORY OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST
MAIN THEME:
Lebanon in 19th century:
This chapter will examine the following issues in 19th century Lebanese history:
A. Levels of Ottoman control;
B. Communal tensions and Civil War 1860;
C. Extent of autonomy after 1861.
I
THE CIVIL WAR OF 1860
(Ia)
TRIGGER
1860:
On 9th of July, 1860, a mob of 20,000-50,000 from the Maidan, and Salihya districts of Damascus attacked, killed and pillaged the Christian Quarter and its inhabitants.
5,000 to 12,000 were estimated to have perished.
The Greek Orthodox, the Greek Catholic and the Armenian churches were the first to be burned. The Russian consulate was the first to be attacked, followed by the French, then the Dutch, Austrian, Belgian and the American consulates. Abdu Costi, the American Consul was beaten and left for dead. The Prussian and the English Consulates were saved.
(A rare glass negative photograph of the Christian quarter of Damascus, Lebanon, July 1860)
For one tourists view of the Christian quarter looks like today, go to
http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/damascuschristianquarter
and for a tourist’s video
http://www.walkonearth.com/videos/damascus_christian_quarter.html
This was the beginning of yet another Civil War in Lebanon. Why did this happen?
(Ib)
INTRODUCTION
In the 19th century, Lebanon was a part of the Ottoman Empire. It was very closely related to the area then known as Syria.
THE 4 ESSENTIALS
In any discussion of pre-civil war Lebanon, you must mention these 4 elements:
1. the confessional groups,
2. the economic tensions/disparities between peasants and landlords,
3. the political control/weakness of the Ottomans
4. the external influence of Britain and France and Egypt.
An important issue in the history of Lebanon is the role of both internal and external factors in major events such as civil wars. These 4 essential factors can be broken down into internal and external factors.
INTERNAL
The internal factors are the social, religious, economic and political tensions within Lebanon. (‘communal tensions’)
EXTERNAL
The external factors are the influence of the Ottomans, Britain and France on the internal affairs of Lebanon. (levels of Ottoman control; extent of autonomy after 1861)
TO ANSWER A QUESTION ON LEBANON IN 19th CENTURY, YOU MUST AT THE VERY LEAST, HAVE THE FOLLOWING 6 ELEMENTS AT YOUR DISPOSAL:
(i) remember the name of the country, the name of the Empire of which it was a part (Mount Lebanon; Ottoman Empire);
(ii) remember the date of the civil war (1860);
(iii) remember the name of the settlement that concluded it.
(iv) remember that Lebanese society was made up of 5 religious groups:
Druze, Maronite Christians, Sunni and Shia Muslims.
(v) You must also be able to say something about the elements in Lebanese society which allowed for these groups to live peacefully together.
(vi) You must be able to say something about the influence of external powers on Lebanon.
(II)
NOTES ON LEBANON 1820-1914[1]
In 19th century, Lebanon was a part of Greater Syria, which included Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan, all of which was itself a part of the Ottoman Empire, but which had achieved some autonomy from the Ottoman Empire.
In 1800, within Greater Syria, about .quarter of a million people lived in the area known as Mount Lebanon.
(This area consisted mainly of the mountainous regions. It was where religious dissidents went to get away from central power. They had developed ways in which to live together quite harmoniously)
It was governed by what has been called ‘the politics of the notables’ – intermediaries between the locals, and the Ottoman governor and Istanbul. (CLUE: the various ways in which political power was enacted was a main cause of the civil war)
However, Tanzimat reforms were interfering with this system, and so notables were losing some influence.
Emir Bashir II was Ottoman governor from Shihab family. His reforms and Bashir’s increasing ties with Maronites upset Jumblatt (a Druze notable).
1821 and 1825 there were wars between the two. Bashir II killed Jumblatt and suppressed the Druze.
With the help of the French as well as Ibrahim Ali, Bashir II ruled.
Tensions were heighted due to isolation of Druze and economic success of Maronites.
Some of the Maronites turned to the economic opportunities offered by increasing penetration of Europe in the Levant.
From 1830s onwards, the port of Beirut expanded.
Ottomans needed exports to sell in Europe.
So, in order to grow more wheat and barley for export, notables started to bring new tracts of land under cultivation. The Tanzimat Land Code of 1858 helped them in this.
It helped create vast private estates in Greater Syria for notables bought huge tracts of uncultivated state land.
Some peasants who bought them registered them in the name of the notable patron thinking they would be looked after
At this point we connect up with Muhammad Ali’s foreign policy. He was always trying to expand Egypt. In 1831-40 Ibrahim, his son, invaded Greater Syria, taking Jerusalem, Damascus and Aleppo, (he had already started getting the Sudan and Jordan and Mecca.)
From 1831, Greater Syria was governed by Muhammad Ali’s son, Ibrahim Pasha (1831-1840) until he was forced out by the European powers in 1840.
This left a political vacuum in Mount Lebanon which lasted for the next 20 years, which were marked by lots of civil strife and conflict.
The Ottomans could never quite fully assert their control, whilst all the time, former Druze lords attempted to regain power and privilges. (This was the time of the Tanzimat.) 1841 Bashir III was introduced. He was not as good as Bashir II. There were more massacres of Christians by Druze
Increasing clashes between Maronites and Druze led the Ottomans to propose, in 1841, dividing Mount Lebanon into 2 units: this was known as the double Qa’imaqamate.
But the two communities were too mixed up together for it to be a practical solution.
1841-1845 direct clashes - they tried to separet Maronite north and Druze south.
(Jews were lower profile, so not a target)
In 1845 Civil War broke out.
The Europeans encouraged the Ottomans to bring it to an end. Their solution was made by Shakib Effendi: as a way of recognising how complex Lebanese society was he allowed for the representation of each sect (Maronites, Druze, Sunni, Shi’ite, Greek Orthodox, greek Catholic) on each of the two councils of the Qa’imaqamate.
They were assisted by deputies in both districts (north and south).
They tried to introduce representative councils, but 1858 put an end to this
1850 : anti-Chrstian riots in Aleppo
1856 : anti Christian riots in Nablus
1858: the Kisrwan rebellion dealt this a mortal blow (showing that there was still no effective entralised political power)
1858 started in the North as Maronite peasants against Maronite muqata’ajis, but ended up in south as Maronite peasants against their Druze landlords.
1860: Maronites defeated, loads killed, 100,000 refugees.
1860 July – it spread to Damscus. 5-10,000 Christians were massacred.
(this was also partly caused by Muslim hostility to Christians)
This brought in the French army. Napoleon III had to appease French Catholic public.
1860: Civil War erupted.
(there was a distinct lack of a viable political system. French support for Maronites turned it into a struggle for ultimate political control.
.
(III)
ANALYSIS
CAUSES OF PRE-CIVILWAR TENSION
HISTORIOGRAPHY:
Cleveland says the tensions were a cause of:
(a) the Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire which led to ‘the disruption of long-established patterns of life’ , and
(b) ‘European economic penetration of Greater Syria’ from 1850s onwards
ECONOMIC
Ibrahim Pasha introduced the domestic reforms his father had introduced in Egypt.
The monopoly system (which made it a captive market for Egyptian textiles) damaged local craft industries
In addition
CAUSE OF TENSIONS
Ibrahim Pasha (governor of Greater Syria 1833-1840) caused tensions between Muslims and Christians in Mount Lebanon, in other words the Maronites Christians and the Druze (the minority, a branch of Shi’ism) who had lived together relatively harmoniously for centuries.
FACT TO PROVE THIS CLAIM
He tried to introduce universal conscription and disarm the local population.
And in 1837, when some Druze communities refused, he sent a force of thousands of Christians against them. The Christians enlarged the territory they controlled.
In 1839 Ibrahim changed his mind and asked Christians to return their arms. They refused. This led to a general uprising against Ibrahim.
Ottomans sent forces, trying to take advantage of the weakness of Ibrahim. But they were beaten. Then, the British, worried about Ali, landed in Lebanon in 1840. As a consequence, the revolt against Ibrahim really took off.
Ibrahim returned to Egypt and the powers of Europe imposed a settlement on this Ottoman –Egypt conflict. (Treaty of London 1841).
The 1838 Treaty of Balata abolished all monopolies in the Ottoman empire and allowed the entry of European goods at a favourable tariff rate of 3%. This, alongside a more vigorous enforcement of Capitulations, meant greater role of Europeans in the Middle East.
CONSEQUENCES OF THIS
POLITICAL
Greater Syria was restored to Ottoman rule.
SOCIAL
It changed sectarian relations (this means relations between the different religious groups.
The Maronites had gained more power. Ottoman decrees of 1839 and 1856 promised them equality.
This encouraged them to get more involved in commercial transactions with Europeans. They were making money, building school and so on.
The Druze and Sunni saw this as a minority getting too big in what they saw was a Muslim state.
This erupted into civil war.
The civil war began when the Druze attacked several Christian villages in Mount Lebanon. This then spilled over into Damascus.
To avoid European intervention the Ottomans dispatched a force under Fuad Pasha, to punish the Muslims.
However the Europeans were not satisfied. They organised a settlement.
This took place in 1861 conference in Istanbul.
OTHER ECONOMIC
(Decline of handicrafts in face of local, as opposed to European factory production. In 1830s the silk weavers started using Jacquard looms and so increased output.)
Prior to 1840, religious rivalries were not the driving force of Lebanese politics.
Maronites and Druze helped bring down Bashir II, who was under Egyptian influence.
After 1840 the change in the balance between the religious groups was exacerbated by European influence and Ottomans trying to re-establish control.
IV
POST CIVIL WAR SETTLEMENT:
EXTENT OF AUTONOMY
Their aim was to assure the safety of the Christian population.
It made Mount Lebanon an autonomous administrative entity, in the form of a mutasarrifiyyah – governed by a non-Lebanese Ottoman Christian subject and protected by the European powers.
As awkward as it seemed, it brought peace and prosperity to the region until 1914.
1861
Under European pressure, mainly from France, an Ottoman edict issued in 1861 (effective in 1864) made Mount Lebanon a Mutesarrifiyyet governed by a Mutasarrıf. This meant that the majorly Maronite mountain was no longer subordinate to any of the surrounding Eyalets. The edict also granted that the Mutasarrıf be Christian.
These reforms came after a sectarian war in the mountain between the Maronites and the Druze, the latters were supposidly backed by the Ottomans.
[edit] 1864
As part of the Tanzimat reforms, an Ottoman law passed in 1864 provided for a standard provincial administration throughout the empire with the Eyalets becoming smaller Vilayets governed by a Wali or governor still appointed by the Porte but with new provincial assemblies participating in administration.
[edit] 1874
In 1874, Jerusalem became a Mutesarrifiyyet gaining a special administrative status.
POST CIVIL WAR : EXTENT OF AUTONOMY
New system introduced in 1861(revised 1864):
Mount Lebanon (but not Beirut, Biqa, Tripoli, or Sidon) was made autonomous under IN guarantnee, and a Christian governor, and multi-communal council.
System of muqata ajis was abolished.
Taxation was limited.
Yapp argues that 1861 settlement “began the process by which Lebanon became an independent state.”
And the type of polity that eventually emerged in it.
Maronites fought hard to keep it independent.
Britain and France protected it and looked after Druze and Maronites respectively.
Ottomans saw 1861 as a temporary reverse. They aimed at and retook full control in 1914.
Ottomans saw Mount Lebanona srequiring access to the sea if it was to become an indepdnent state. ML needed financial and military help from Ottomans.
So there were instabilities in this Lebanese settlement which made them look for other solutions.
Mount Lebanon was made into one political unit – Mutasarrifiyya. Its Governor was to be a non-Lebanese Christian.
He was to be supported by an Administrative Council : 12 elected representatives chosen on the basis of sectarian representation: (each of the 12 were chosen by an elected village Shaykhs)
4 Maronites, 3 Druze, 2 Greek Orthodox, 1 Greek Catholic, 1 Sunni, 1 Shi’ite. (even though the Druze were only 10% of the population. By 1913, 60% of the 400,000 population was Maronite, 12% Gk Orth, 7% Gk Cath; 11% Druze)
They took care of taxation, and government spending, each councillor representing one of the 12 districts or qada’.
This Mutasarrifiyya also had its own police force.
Economy:
The economy was dominated by silk production (French-owned and local factories)
The Maronite Church was riding to become the owner of one third of the agricultural land in Mount Lebanon.
Demography:
Increasing emigration to North and South America, Egypt and Sudan (100,000 between 1860-1908).
Maronite middle class started to say they wanted to incorporate Beirut and other areas into Mount Lebanon, so as to improve the economy, thus absorbing labour surplus that was being lost by emigration.
By 1914, Mutasarrifiyya was abolished and the Ottomans had appointed their own Muslim Governor.
1918: Anglo-French and Arab forces created Greater Lebanon out of Syria and Lebanon.
1920 French mandate over Greater Lebanon declared. Muslims were now half of the population.
1926: New constitution for the Republic of Lebanon, but the French High Commissioner retained the main authority until Lebanon indepdence in 1943.
Throughout that time there was a continuation of the ottomanian confessional nature of the representation.