CHAPTER 6
Learning—process through which experience produces a lasting change in behavior or mental processes.
Classical Conditioning—Ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning is a form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus.
Reflexes—unlearned (innate) responses triggered by stimuli that have biological significance.
Pavlov found that reflexive responses could be connected to new stimuli that had no biological relevance.
Any neutral stimulus when paired with a reflex-producing stimulus will eventually elicit a learned response similar to the original reflex.
Anatomy of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus—any stimulus that, without any learning involved, automatically triggers a reflexive behavior.
Unconditioned Response—behavior occurring in response to the CS alone
Conditioned Stimulus—formerly neutral stimulus that, having been paired with the UCS, comes to elicit behavior because of its association with the UCS.
Conditioned Response—behavior occurring in response to the CS alone
The CS and UCS must be presented close together in time so that the organism perceives them as being related.
Extinction—occurs when repeated presentations of the CS without the UCS no longer elicit the CR.
Spontaneous recovery—the sudden reappearance of the CR after a rest period (time out) without further exposure to the UCS.
Generalization—extension of a learned response to stimuli that is
Similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Discrimination—a change in responses to one stimulus but not to stimuli
That are similar.
Little Albert
John B. Watson trained him to fear a white rat by pairing the rat with an aversive UCS, the sound of a loud gong stuck just behind the child.
After only 7 trials, the CR was learned and then his fear generalized from the rat to other furry objects.
Operant Conditioning—B.F. Skinner
Patterns of rewards, punishments, and other consequences encourage or discourage the behaviors they follow.
Law of Effect—Responses that are followed by rewards bring satisfaction and are strengthened, those that are unrewarded are weakened.
An “operant” is n observable, voluntary behavior that an organism emits to “operate” or have an effect on the environment.
Anatomy of Operant Conditioning
Stimulus---Response---Reforcement
4 Kinds of Consequences
Reinforcers are significant events that strengthen responses when they are delivered in connection with responses.
Positive reinforcer—stimulus received after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again.
Negative reinforcer—removal of an unpleasant stimulus.
Primary reinforcers—rewarding in of itself
Secondary reinforcers—conditioned reforcers
Punishment
Intended to eliminate an undesirable behavior requires an aversive condition that follows a response. Punishment is often created by the application of an unpleasant stimulus.
Positive Punishment—application of an aversive stimulus
Negative Punishment—removal of an attractive stimulus
Premack Principle—any activity that is often engaged in by the person can act as a reinforcer for a less frequent activity
Shaping—reinforcement in steps that get closer and closer to what you want.
Continuous reinforcement—all correct responses are reinforced
Ratio Schedule—reinforcement depends on the number of correct responses
Fixed Ratio—reinforcement is contingent upon a certain unvarying
Number of responses
Variable Ratio—the number of responses required for a reinforcement
Varies from trial to trial
Interval Schedule—reinforcement depends on the time interval elapsed
Since last reinforcement
Fixed Interval—reinforcement is contingent upon a certain fixed time
Period
Variable Interval—the time period between reinforcements varies
From trial to trial
Cognitive Learning
Mental activity involved in the representation and processing of knowledge.
Anatomy of Cognitive Learning
Stimulus---(Attention, Memory, Muscle Ability, Motivation)—Response—Reward
Insight Learning—solve problems by suddenly perceiving familiar objects in new forms or relationships.
Cognitive Map—inner representation of the learning situation as a whole. Tolman
Learned Helplessness—Conditioned to not respond to stimulus.
Albert Bandura
Social Learning Theory or Observational Learning
Learning occurs when someone uses observations of another person’s actions and their consequences to guide his/her own future actions.
Dramatized violence leads to a reduction in emotional arousal.
Dramatized violence leads to an increase in the likelihood of engaging in aggressive behavior.