ISBN 323.285:070-051
JOURNALISTS AND REPORTERS AS TARGETS OF TERRORISTS’ ATTACКS
Zanet Ristoska,Ph.D
Biljana Popovska,MA
Ministry of Defence of Republic of Macedonia
Abstract:Media has a big impact over the contemporary world. The main aim is to pass on the information and objectively inform the public about many events. The race among the broadcasting agencies looking for exclusivity – the “be there or be square” brings the journalists and reporters in a shortest possible time in the middle of the event. Also, reporting from war and conflict hotspots has always been dangerous for the journalists and reporterspresent in a conflict zone.In addition, last few years have beenthe darkest period in terms of the security of the journalists and reporters reporting from the conflict areas around the world.
Statistics have shown that the death toll of journalists and reportersinconflicts has rapidly increased especially in places where the terrorism has been the most practiced method of a political battle. What in the past decades has been happening in some conflict zones suggests that the media are becoming less safe and it is necessary to take concrete measures to reduce casualties among thejournalists, photographers and reporters reporting from these zones. Journalists are no longer only collateraldamage of military or terrorists’ activities, but they have become a planned target of the terrorists. Thus,targets of theterrorists’ attacks become selective again, meaning that media has actually been the planned target. Local journalists are immediately being eliminated as traitors while lot of money isbeing requestedto release the captured foreign reporters. In this case the media are usually being used as means for conveying the message and spreading fear in the western world. Disturbing images of journalists and reporters’ public executions are being sent around theworld media thus accomplishing the multiple goals of the terrorism as means of violence.
Firstly, the paper will give a brief overview of some theoretical aspects and scientific elaborations of the relations between terrorism, media and government institutions within the context of this paper. In addition, a brief comparative analysis of the number of victims from the ranks of journalists and reporters at several locations where terrorism is present as a method of political fight will also be made. Also, some practices for finding adequate measures for greater safety of media representatives reporting from the theater of operations will be pinpointed. Moreover it will highlight the added role of the journalists joining the military ranks, versus conventional military journalists and reporters.
Although these journalists and reporters are as neutral reporters, the question is whether in this way the principle of objectivity and impartiality in reporting has been adhered to. The power of social media in terms of the ability to directly affect the transfer of information from the scene while conveying the information to the public will also be pinpointed.
Keywords: journalists, reporters, terrorists, social media, conflict, target, victims
НОВИНАРИТЕ И РЕПОРТЕРИТЕ КАКО ЦЕЛ НА ТЕРОРИСТИЧКИТЕ АКТИВНОСТИ
Апстракт:Медиумите имаат огромно влијание во современиот свет. Нивната основна цел е да известуваат за настани и објективно да ја информираат јавноста. Натпреварот помеѓу медиумските куќи за навремено известување, односно за ексклузивата, ги води новинарите и фоторепортеритешто е можно побрзо до местото на настанот. Известувањето од воените жаришта отсекогаш претставувало опасност за секој новинар или фоторепортер кој се наоѓа во воено опкружување. Но токмупоследните неколку годиниго претставуваат најмрачниотпериод во однос на безбедноста на претставниците на медиумите кои известуваат за конфликтите од самото место на настаните. Статистиката покажува дека бројот на новинарите и репортерите кои го загубиле својот живот во зоните на конфликти, особено таму каде што тероризмот е најчесто употребуваниот метод на борба рапидно се зголемува. Она што во последните децении се случува во некои конфликтни подрачја упатува на тоа дека претставниците на медиумите се сè помалку безбедни и дека е потребно да се преземат конкретни мерки со кои би се намалиле жртвите во редовите на новинарите, репортерите и фотографите кои известуваат од овие подрачја. Новинарите не се повеќе само колатерална штета на воените, односно терористичките активности туку тие стануваат планирана цел на терористите. Со тоа целите на напад на терористите кои дејствуваат во овие зони повторно стануваат селективни, односно планирано се дејствуватокму врз претставниците на медиумите. Притоа домашните новинари, како предавници, веднаш се елиминараат, а за странските известувачи се бара голем откуп, при што најчесто се користат медиумите како средство за пренесување на пораката и ширење страв во западниот свет. Грозоморните слики на јавна егзекуција на новинари и репортери се доставуваат до сите светски медиуми со што се постигнуваат повеќе цели на тероризмот како насилно средство.
Во овој труд најпрвин ќе биде даден краток осврт на некои теоретски аспекти и научни елаборации на односите помеѓу тероризмот, медиумите и институциите на власта, кои се во контекст на трудот. Ќе биде направена и кратка компаративна анализа на бројот на жртвите од редовите на новинарите и репортерите на неколку локации каде што тероризмот е присутен како метод на политичка борба.
Исто така ќе посочиме на некои практики за пронаоѓање соодветни мерки за поголема безбедност на медиумските претставници кои известуваат од местото на настанот. Притоа ќе се потенцира улогата на новинарите кои се приклучуваат во воените редови, наспроти класичните воени новинари и известувачи. Иако овие новинари и репортери се приклучени како неутрални известувачи, прашањето е дали на овој начин се запазува принципот за објективност и непристрастност во известувањето. Ќе се посочи и на моќта на социјалните медиуми во однос на можноста за директно влијание при пренесувањето на информациите од местото на настанот при пренесување на информациите во јавноста.
Клучнизборови: новинари, репортери, терористи, социјални медиуми, конфликт, цел, жртви
INTRODUCTION
Properly constituted democratic society implies free, independent and active media. In addition to the all rights and freedoms defined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as one of the fundamental documents of the United Nations, Article 19 stipulates that "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includesthe freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers "(UN-fundamental documents, NIP Nova Makedonija, Skopje, 1995: 67).
Free and independent media tend objectively and impartially to inform on all current events. Moreover, it isvery important that a democratic society has active media. The moment when the role of the media is being disrupted, the democratic character of the society gets endangered.
Journalists play a vital role as impartial observers of events consciously taking the risk andeven endangering their own life by reporting on crises (Rhod D, "Journalists as target", KTM LLC, Al Jazeera, 2014). Moreover, in recent decades in many conflict areasjournalists have been increasingly becoming victims of violent activities. In the crisis regions of the Middle East and North Africa, Iraq and Afghanistan journalists have become frequent targetsof terrorist activities of certain fundamentalist groups that use terrorism as a modus operandi. By kidnapping or executing journalists they send messages to the other party in the conflict. Hence, the message goes to the world public thus sending information about the purpose of their actions. Consequently, the fear gets spread among the public in the most brutal way.
On the other hand, in societies burdened with crime, corruption andcoupling of criminal organizations with the authorities, killing journalists investigating criminal actions have lately become the easiest way to silence the media. In these societies the murder of a journalist has been the simplest way to implement censorship on the media. Thus, in the course of the recent decades the profession journalisthas been considered as one of the most risky onein Mexico and Russia (Journalists as target, KTM LLC, Al Jazeera, 2014), and turning war reporters and investigative journalists into endangered species in the modern society.
Specificity of the relationship between terrorism and media
Journalists, reporters and photographers are people who, unlike other civilians involved in the conflicts fleeing from danger, consciously walk towards it. Relations that occur between terrorism and the media, i.e. between terrorists and journalists are polyvalent and include relations and relationships at various levels.
It is worth mentioning that the role of the media in the terrorist activities of a particular group or organization has not been investigated at a higher scientific level. Alex Schmidt and Jenny de Graffhave been among the first analysts of terrorism to have been studying and elucidating the complexity of these relations. Their research analysis and systematic research on the relationship between terrorism and the media haveinvestigated the link between terrorist violence and journalists reporting on terrorism. By itthey wanted to make a scientific contribution to the peaceful resolution of violent and adverse conditions on the ground. They say, the modern means of communication and the media have assistedin shaping the profile of the contemporary conflicts. Theyhave made possible a new profile of modern conflict to be created.
In the past, the warring parties fought the main fronts.In modern conflict areas and by use of modern means of communication journalists can almost immediately reach the zone of conflict and report about it. Hence, the public is directlyinvolved in the events, and public opinion becomes one of the major aspects of modern warfare. Mobilization of public opinion through media coverage and influence becomes a needed strategy to achieve the objective, which is to win the war. Terrorists have understood and acceptedthis kind of influence of the media on the outcome of the conflict and have begun to take a number of actions as to influence public opinion through the media (A.Schmid, J.D.Graff, 1982). Alex Schmidt and Jenny de Graffpoint out to a specific typeof relation between terrorism and the media, which is that media allow terrorists to turn to the public. As a result, terrorism becomes a kind of political communication.
Other analysts of terrorism, such as for example John Alexander have beenopposing this thesis. Alexander believes that terrorism is a new form of fight. By acting on the media they actually turn theminto their allies. Modern terrorists treat the media as potential weapons and by all means want to become part of the media coverage. Hence, the murder of the media representatives becomes one of the most vocal means, i.e. weapons in the hands of the terrorists to achieve their goals (John Alexander, 1984: 135-150).
NormanPodhoretz believes that contemporary journalists seem to be having a secret deal with terrorists. He claims that terrorists and reporters collaborate as to achieve their mutual objectives. In addition, the dramatic nature of terrorist activities is a perfect theme for major news stories, full of action and attention-grabbing. Journalists have a propensity to cover media story, thus becoming latent allies of the terrorists and their modus operandi. They may unconsciously get into danger as to achieve their goals, thus making it easier for terrorists to achieve their goals. Consequently, a terrorist theater is being created on the ground. (Poddhoretz, 1981).
On the other hand, some later research on the relationships between terrorism and media and the transferability of the cause of the terrorists through the media have revealed that a very small part of world public justifies the cause of the terrorists being transmitted in this way. (Vajt Dz, Terorizam, Aleksandrija Press, 2004: 318). In fact,terrorists wanting to use the media for propaganda purposes only contribute to the spread of violence, terror and fear via the media. The effect of the murders relayed through the media manifestsa disgust and outrage from the brutality and inhumanity of these self fighters for "just society of true believers".
Most analyzes have pinpointed that the media has not only become an effective weapon into the hands of the terrorists, but through their reports have served tothe interests of the other party to justify its actions.
David Palec and some others have claimed that how the news stories are seen depends on the source. Still, in most analyzed media articles about terrorist events, the sourceshave came from government institutions. (Vajt Dz, Terorizam, Aleksandrija Press, 2004: 319).
In regard to the specific issue this paper will focus on the issue of censorship, which as it has been said in some failed states has been burdened with organized crime, corruption and coupling of criminal-terrorist groups. In such cases the government has mostly been effectively realized through murder and planned violence against journalists.
Generally speaking the level of democracy in a society can also be measured through the level of media freedom. The official establishment in a degraded society declaratively advocates freedom of speech. However, it often unofficially uses the services of criminal and terrorist organizations to intimidate or eliminate the voices of the society, i.e. the journalists investigating some irregularities into it. Given the developments in the modern world it seems that in some societies controlling information has even been more emphasized than before. In terms of the number of journalists’death tool, the figures in these environments are even more disturbing, and politics of impunity of perpetrators exacerbates the situation.
Regarding the issue Schmidt and De Graf have written a whole chapter in their book. They claim that the original objective of freedom of speech has been to allow individuals to express opinion. Nowadays, as elaborated at the beginning of the paper, the media have enormous influence and are guardians of public informing. One of the main features of totalitarian, undemocratic and failed societies is precisely the existence of censorship and biased or selected public information. The issue of necessity and defining of censorship remains one of the most controversial issues for a research work.The sore things are whether there should not be any control over the media, or there should be a direct censorship in the interest of the state and its national interests. Also, whether there should be an independent body that will objectively sort and select the information or reporters who although should report objectively by definition are still representing the views and needs of the large corporations that own them etc. (Vajt Dz, Terorizam, Aleksandrija Press, 2004: 327).
There are other investigated relationships between terrorism, media and government institutions, but in the interest of the subject of the research this work has referred only to the mentioned ones.
Journalism, war reporters and journalists’ security
Journalism is a social activity. Journalism became known in the era of the press when needs showed up. In addition, opportunities for faster and efficient reception, processing and distribution of information were created (T.Gruevski, 2007: 18). It is a way, a form and means of social communication over long distances and between large communities and viadifferent media, in particular: newspapers, radio, television, film (D.Slavkovic, 1983: 96). Journalism assumes collecting information in order to present the news to the public through printed, visual or electronic media. Journalism requires professionals who will strictly adhere to the rules of their profession and the specifics that exist in journalistic forms of expression (T. Gruevski, 2007: 199). A journalist is one who collects information - news releases produced by the media. Journalists are a kind of voices of the society.
With the development of society and especially with the emergence of new means of communication the need for the rapid transmission of information has also occurred. The speed of informing has become an important factor in journalism asit affects its sales. News which is current and interesting is not just a form of public communication, but also means of income generation. The information market retains only those who have the financial means to organize a broad network of correspondents through which they come to more information. (T.Gruevski, 2007: 141).
With the emergence of journalism, the need of associates providing the media constantly to be fed with new informationhave also increased, thus enabling specific forms of journalism facilitating the flow of information to haveoccurred. Such specific type of journalism is the war reporting.
Journalism has defined war reporting as news coverage of wars and armed conflicts and crises. War correspondent or a war reporter is a journalist stationed in the theater of operations or goes there to report for one or more media. Reporting from thewar hot spots has been one of the riskiest journalistic tasks qualifying this occupation as a high-risk profession. Therefore, war reporters should have a special place in society Moreover, they should be provided protection by the state (http // dw.de / p / EBKh, Ratni reporter vas prozor u rat, 2008).
Historically, the beginnings of military journalism or war reporting binds to the Crimean War in 1854 whenthe Kingdom of Great Britain had two journalists in its ranks directly reporting on the events and operations.
Later, during the civil war in the US,war corresponding was first established as a separate part of journalism. Then, war correspondents ofthe two warring sides were reporting on high morality and victories, not going into an explanation of military operations.
By the time of the civil war in Spain, war corresponding has not changed a lot in relation to reporting purposes which have always been in the "service of the nation" and as such it has been incorporated in the military structures of the armies at almost all levels ("The Encyclopedia of War Journalism", 2015 ). Civil War in Spain from 1936-1939 is perhaps the first military conflict when war correspondents were informing directly from the field. The cause of the Spanish civil war has been fairly communicated to the world precisely through the reporting of many top warreporters and independent journalists, like Hemingway, for example.
War journalism has particularly been developed during the Vietnam War as a segment that plays a very important role in informing the world public via journalists being at the spot. During the Vietnam War 63 journalists were killed.
The first Gulf War of 1991 is considered as a turnaround in the modus operandi of the war reporting. When analyzing the reports of the attack on Iraq it is obvious that field reporters have already had opportunities for direct transmission via satellite links, which abruptly commercialize their role. The endeavors to inform from the spot with unbiased perspective have increased the number of dead, wounded and captured journalists.
Data from the website of the International Federation of Journalists during the Iraqi war displays a figure of 99 journalists being killed (
This high figure is due to the individualmovements of journalists without military escort. In addition, the accommodation in hotels across the military actions in Iraq hasalso multiplied the risk. In military actions in the former Yugoslavia 25 local and foreign journalists were killed.
The number of killed journalists over the last decades is rapidly increasing and only truly brave journalists who take the risk even for the price of their own lives can report on all current events in the crisis spots. Modern military journalists and reporters are aware that they should take a big risk to go into areas of conflict to come to the real story.
Brutal execution of the freelance journalist and photographer James Foley and setting footage of it on "YouTube" is really shocking news. Analyzes of the data published by “Reporters Without Borders" and other organizations where lists of journalists victims from war zones can be found urges us to wonder whether the fact that a growing number of journalists lose their lives (33 in 2014 and only in Syria from 2011 to today - 69) is because military conflicts and participants in them in recent years are more ruthless than before, or the current measures to protect journalists in conflict and crisis societies have been insufficient.
Journalists killed in August 2014 according to the "Press Freedom Barometer" and "Reporters without Borders"
Syria : 6- Iraq: 5
- Israel and Palestine: 4
- Ukraine: 4
- Brazil: 2
- Paraguay : 2
- Afghanistan: 2
- Egypt: 1
- Somalia: 1
Central African Republic: 1
Mexico: 1
DR Congo: 1
Libya: 1
One reason is that most media cannot afford greater financial costs for top and trained war correspondents who would beengaged throughout the conflict, and engage freelance reporters and reporters who are paid less, and are not offered benefits such as additional costs or insurance. Such reporters being underpaid accept and enter additional risks by not hiring interpreters. They are not sufficiently equipped and get accommodated in unsecured hotels, providing more opportunities to become targets of attacks, kidnappings and the like.