Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Methods
Chapter Summary
I.INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY
A.What is Psychology? - The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology values empirical evidence - information acquired by direct observation and measurement using systematic scientific methods. Studying psychology offers practical solutions to everyday problems and develops an appreciation for scientific methods of research, as opposed to pseudopsychologies (“false psychologies”) that pretend to discover psychological information through nonscientific methods.
- Psychology’s Goals - The four goals of psychology are: (1) Description - to describe particular behaviors by careful scientific observation, (2) Explanation – to explain behaviors by conducting experiments to determine their causes, (3) Prediction – to predict when a behavior being studied will occur in the future, and (4) Change – to change inappropriate behavior or circumstance psychologists investigate behavior with basic research or applied research.
Applying Psychology to Work: Careers in the Field - Psychologists can specialize in several areas, including clinical and counseling psychology, biopsychology/neuroscience, experimental, cognitive, developmental, industrial/organizational, industrial/organizational, educational psychology, school psychology. A description of the different areas/specialties of psychology is shown in Table 1.1.The number of psychologists working in the different fields is highlighted in Figure 1.1.
II.ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY
A.Early Psychological Science: A Brief History - Historically psychologists have taken various approaches regarding the study of behavior. They eventually emerged to form various schools of psychology with distinct approaches to the study of behavior. The following nine major schools are discussed: (1) structuralism, (2) functionalism, (3) psychoanalytic/psychodynamic, (4) behavioral, (5) humanistic, (6) cognitive, (7) neuroscience/biopsychology, (8) evolutionary, and (9) sociocultural. The contributions of women and minorities are highlighted.
1.Structuralism - Titchener brought Wundt's ideas to America and coined the term structuralism, which is now used to refer to the school of thought that focused on the investigation of thought processes and the structure of the mind.
2.Functionalism - Feeling the need for practical applications of psychology, some psychologists turned to functionalism. Functionalism focused on the function of mental processes in adapting the individual to the environment. Darwin’s theory of evolution had an impact on this school and William James was the leading force in the functionalist school.
3.The Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective - Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory examined psychological problems that were presumed to be caused by conflicts in the unconscious, which are primarily sexual or aggressive in nature. The controversy surrounding Freud's theories are briefly discussed. Carl Jung and Alfred Adler are also prominent figures in the psychoanalytic perspective.
4.Behavioral Perspective - The school of behaviorism that emphasized objective, observable behavior and the rigors of scientific research. All behavior is viewed as a response to a stimulus Watson and Skinner were influential figures in behaviorism.
5.Humanistic Perspective – Challenging both the psychoanalytic and behaviorist views, humanism stressed free will, self-actualization, and the positive and growth-seeking nature of human nature.
6.Cognitive Perspective – A modern perspective that continues research interests in the areas of thought, perception, and information processing.
7.Neuroscience/Biopsychology Perspective – A modern perspective that explores the role of biological factors such as genetics and biological brain processes.
8.Evolutionary Perspective – The evolutionary perspective that focuses on the role of natural selection, adaptation, and evolution of behavior and mental processes.
9.Sociocultural Perspective – Social interactions and cultural determinants of behavior and mental processes are emphasized in the sociocultural perspective.
B.Modern Perspectives: Seven Approaches and One Unifying Theme - Early schools of psychology have disappeared or blended into newer, broader perspectives. The biopsychosocial is introduced as a unifying theme of modern psychology and today, many psychologists recognize its merit. Table 1.2 highlights seven major perspectives in contemporary psychology.
III.THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY – Psychologists follow standardized scientific procedures in the same way as other scientists. Research methodology includes experimental techniques designed to investigate cause-and-effect relationships and descriptive techniques that provides descriptions of behavior. Both experimental and descriptive research has advantages and disadvantages. Psychologists strive to maintain high ethical standards in research, therapy, and other areas of professional psychology. Basic research is conducted to study theoretical questions without trying to solve a specific problem. It studies behavior for its own sake – simply for knowledge. Applied research, however, utilizes the principles and discoveries of psychology for practical purposes attempting to find solutions to real-world problems.
A.The Scientific Method – Research generally involves six carefully planned steps, as summarized In Figure 1.3. The steps include: (1) identify question and literature review, (2) develop a testable hypothesis, (3) select a research method and collect the data, (4) analyze the data and accept or reject the hypothesis, (5) publish, replicate, and seek scientific review, and (6) build a theory
B.Ethical Guidelines: Protecting the Rights of Others - Psychologists are expected to maintain High ethical standards, and the American Psychological Association (APA) has published specific guidelines detailing these standards. Three important areas are discussed: (1) human participants informed consent, voluntary participation, use of deception, debriefing, confidentiality, and use of students as subjects, (2) animal rights, and (3) clients in therapy – confidentiality.
IV.RESEARCH METHODS – Four research methods are examined: (1) experimental, (2) naturalistic observation, (3) surveys, and (4) case studies. The advantages and disadvantages of experimental and descriptive research methods are highlighted in Figure 1.6.
A.Experimental Research: A Search for Cause and Effect - An experiment is the only research method that can identify cause and effect. Independent variables are the factors the experimenter manipulates whereas the dependent variables are measurable behaviors of the participants. Experimental controls include a control condition, where participants are treated identically to participants in the experimental condition, except that the independent variable is not applied to them. In the experimental condition, all participants are exposed to the independent variable. The need for a control group and controlling extraneous variables is explored. Research problems and various experimental controls and safeguards including experimenter bias, double-blind study, placebos, the placebo effect, ethnocentrism, sample bias, and participant bias are all discussed and highlighted in Figure 1.8.
Research Highlight: Love at First Fright! – Research by Dutton and Aron suggest that individuals physiologically aroused by a fear-producing situation may mistakenly attribute their arousal to attraction. This phenomenon has come to be called the Misattribution of Arousal Process.
B.Descriptive Research: Naturalistic Observation, Surveys, and Case Studies - When it is not feasible for ethical or practical reasons to study behavior experimentally, psychologists use descriptive techniques including: (1) naturalistic observation - used to study behavior in its natural habitat, (2) surveys - using tests, questionnaires, and interviews to sample a wide variety of behaviors and attitudes, and (3) case study - an in-depth study of a single research participant.
Case Study/Personal Story: A Life Without Fear? – The case of a patient unable to recognize fear in herself and others is highlighted. This inability appears due to damage to a part of her brain called the amygdala.
C.Correlational Research - Correlational studies allow scientists to determine the degree of relationship between variables. Positive, negative, and zero correlations are discussed. Readers are strongly cautioned that correlation does not imply causation as highlighted in Figure 1.8.
D.Biological Research – Tools for exploring the brain and nervous system are discussed and highlighted in Table 1.3 including electrical recordings of brain activity (EEG), electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB), computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET).
Critical Thinking/Active Learning – Becoming a Better Consumer of Scientific Research – This exercise gives readers a chance to critically evaluate popular secondary sources of information to see if the report (1) confuses correlation with causation, (2) lacks a control group, (3) displays experimenter bias or (4) includes sample bias.
Gender and Cultural Diversity: Universal and Culturally Specific Behaviors – Cultural psychologists conduct research to discover which Behaviors are human universals and which are specific to individual cultures.
V.TOOLS FOR SUCCESS – This section offers well-documented tips, strategies and resources to assist students in becoming more efficient and successful.
A.Active Reading - The textbook is the major tool for success. Its special features include the Preface, Prologue, Table of Contents, Individual Chapters, Appendixes, Glossary, References, and Name/Subject Index.
B.Time Management - Set a balance between work, college and social life with four basic strategies: establish a baseline; set up a realistic activity schedule; reward yourself for good behavior; and maximize using the time you do have. - One of the best ways to read actively is to use the SQ4R method; the initials stand for six steps in effective reading: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review, and wRite.
C.Strategies for Grade Improvement - Basic ways of getting better grades include: note taking, study habits; and general test-taking strategies.
D.Additional Resources – Don’t overlook sources of support such as instructors, friends and family, and classmates and roommates.
E.Attitude