Health, Human Rights and Intervention

WORKBOOK ANSWERS

Edexcel A-level Geography4

Health, human rights and intervention

Migration, identity and sovereignty

Synoptic themes and links

This Answers document provides suggestions for some of the possible answers that might be given for the questions asked in the Workbook. They are not exhaustive and other answers may be acceptable, but they are intended as a guide to give teachers and students feedback.

Exam-style question answers

The answers given for exam-style questions of an explanatory or evaluative kind set out what is called ‘indicative content guidance’. Just showing the examiner you are familiar with some or most of the content will not suffice. You need to demonstrate that you understand it and are willing and able to use it in a way that directly addresses the question. The indicative content shown for each question is not exhaustive. Questions may be approached in a number of different ways. The choice of approach is yours. Just make sure your approach answers the question.

Assessing whether or not the question has been answered is where ‘levels marking’ comes in. For questions with maximum marks of 6, 12 or 15, three levels of attainment are recognised. Where the maximum mark is 20, four levels are defined. The table below gives an idea of the descriptors that are used to determine the quality of an answer and the mark to be awarded.

Level / Descriptor / Mark (depending on maximum)
1 / Demonstrates isolated elements of geographical knowledge and understanding.
Question not addressed. / 1–2 (max. 6)
1–4 (max. 12)
1–5 (max. 15)
2 / Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding — not always relevant or accurate.
Shows some awareness of the question. / 3–4 (max. 6)
5–8 (max. 12)
6–10 (max. 15)
3 / Demonstrates geographical knowledge and understanding which is mostly relevant and accurate.
Addresses the question directly. / 5–6 (max. 6)
9–12 (max. 12)
11–15 (max. 15)

Edexcel Geography Workbook 41

© Michael Witherick 2017Hodder Education

TOPIC 8A / Health, human rights and intervention

Topic 8A

Health, human rights and intervention

What is human development and why do levels vary from place to place?

Concepts of human development

1This reduces both measures to a common denominator which makes for a fair comparison. Otherwise the value of both measures is distorted by country size.

2HDI: life expectancy, education (years of schooling) and per capita income.

HPI: life expectancy, experienced wellbeing and ecological footprint.

3Life expectancy; number of doctors per 100,000 people; percentage of population with regular access to essential drugs. Also: hospital beds per 100,000 people; per capita government spending on healthcare.

4Much economic development involves the exploitation of natural resources, from soils and vegetation to minerals and energy sources. Any exploitation of these resources impacts, usually negatively, on the natural environment. This is well illustrated by the burning of fossil fuels which is disturbing the carbon cycle and leading to climate change.

5The fundamental rights to which a person is entitled regardless of their nationality, language, religion, ethnicity or gender. They include liberty, freedom of movement and speech, personal security and access to education and justice. They are now seen as being an important pillar of human development.

6Access to education is important in a number of different ways. For example, education should inform people of their human rights and make them more aware of when such rights are being abused by poor governance. Education enriches the human resources and this is of immediate benefit to economic development. It encourages enterprise, increases skills and makes people more aware of the opportunities for self-advancement. Education also increases awareness of the importance of good health — the need for a good diet and sanitary living conditions.

Variations in health and life expectancy

7Food; safe water; proper sanitation; and access to healthcare. Also: housing;employment; clean air.

8The better a person’s health, the greater their life expectancywill be, barring accidental death. But even a person with poor health would most likely benefit in terms of life expectancy from access to good healthcare.

9Scattergraph — plot data, draw best-fit line and if all the plots lie close to the line, then this suggests a strong correlation.

10Type 2 diabetes, alcoholism and heart disease.

11Ethnicity; poverty and deprivation; lifestyles. Also socioeconomic status and quality of healthcare.

12Low education level (truancy and inaccessibility of schools), limited access to healthcare, high unemployment and poor housing. These four are linked in a vicious downward spiral.

Dispossession of traditional lands and loss of traditional way of life, assimilation difficulties, and alcohol and drug abuse. These three are also linked in another downward spiral.

Both spirals impact negatively on life expectancy.

Governments and intergovernmental organisations

13A totalitarian state has a centralised and dictatorial government. Power is in the hands of elites who are rarely democratically elected. It is unlikely to be concerned about the health of the people.

In contrast, a welfare state will have an elected government and will be pursuing a range of social policies aimed at improving the lot of the poor —improving access to education, healthcare and housing.

14It is meeting the basic needs of people, raising wellbeing and creating opportunities for people to improve their lot. As a process, it can be accelerated by government intervention, social enterprise and social activism aimed at bringing about social change.

15World Bank: provides financial and technical help to developing countries to facilitatetheir progress. It is not a bank in the conventional sense, but it existsto reduce global poverty and support development.

IMF:its main aim is to create stability on the world’s financial markets, facilitate world trade, encourage sustainable growth and reduce poverty. It helps countries by monitoring their economic performance and recommending appropriate policies.

16Its mission is simply the promotion of free trade and to ensure that trade, particularlybetween developing and developed countries is free. The problem for the WTO is that much of the world is divided up into trade blocs, such as the EU, NAFTA and ASEAN.

Trade is free between member countries, but each bloc has tariff walls around it.

17Unlike the World Bank, the IMF and the WTO, UNESCO is not about promoting economic development. It is much more focused on human development. Its purpose is to contribute to peace and security by promoting international understanding through education, science and culture.Another priority is to ensure respect for justice, the rule of law and human rights.

18The eight MDGs were focused on the specific needs of developing countries, such asconfronting poverty, reducing maternal and infant mortality, providing safe water and primary education for all. The SDGs are 17 in number. Like the MDGs, some are targeted

at the reduction of poverty, but there is more emphasis on fighting inequality and injustice and on making development more sustainable (i.e. the need to tackle the causes of climate change). Other goals relate to encouraging democratic governance and international peace. In short, the SDGs are broader than the MDGs.

Why do human rights vary from place to place?

Human rights and international law

19All human beings are born free and equal. Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security. No one shall be held in slavery or servitude.Also: no torture or inhumane treatment; no arbitrary arrest; freedom of movement; freedom of opinion and expression; right to education.

20They are mainly totalitarian states which deny that their citizens have human rights. Governing elites fear being overthrown. If they did sign up, they would be heavily censored by the global community for their overt abuses of human rights.

21European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR).

22Yes, the Human Rights Act (1998). There is a body of opinion that dislikes the UK courts being overruled by theECHR. The issue at stake is the autonomy of the UK Parliament and the UK justice system, an issue involved in the 2016 referendum.

23It is a series of four treaties that apply at times of armed conflict. Its main aim is toprotect civilians not taking part in conflict. It also set down codes of conduct for the treatment of prisoners of war and soldiers who are no longer able to play an active part in the conflict.

24A system of government based on the belief in freedom and equality, in which power is either held by elected representatives or directly by the people themselves.

Differences in the definition and protection of human rights

25Russia and China; Middle East; much of Africa. Also: former USSR republics.

26Labour is an important component of economic development, but in any drive for economic growth it is easy for labour to be exploited to the extreme. This can often involve abuse of civil rights, particularly those relating to conditions of work, remuneration and the right to strike.

27China. Also: Russia; Saudi Arabia; Thailand.

28Most authoritarian governments fear popular uprisings against them. For this reason, citizens are denied such human rights as freedom of speech. Potential opposition is also neutralised by allowing only one political party. So citizens are denied the opportunity of changing the political regime in a peaceful way via the ballot box.

29Rigging general elections and unfair issuing of official contracts.Also: any illegal act by an officeholder in government (e.g. bribery, disinformation, squandering of public funds).

30Political corruption tends to prevail in states with authoritarian governments where power is in the hands of elites. Elites look after themselves and tend to turn a blind eye to the needs of the masses. They are typically reluctant to provide the education and healthcare that could do so much to improve human welfare. Since little or nothing is done, human welfare is indeed threatened.

Variations in human rights within countries

31A state that has recently been subject to rule by a colonial power. Many such states came into being, particularly in Africa, in the middle of the twentieth century when many colonies gained their political independence. In many cases, colonial rule gave way to colonial governments.

32The withdrawal of colonial rule often left a political vacuum which was then contested by different political groups. In Africa, these groups were often related to tribal differences. Remaining white settlers were also keen to protect their interests. The outcome was conflict, not always open but of the guerrilla variety. In these situations, human rights were frequently ignored or abused.

33Australia, Brazil and Canada. Also: Papua New Guinea, Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, New Zealand.

34They are often regarded as second-class citizens with very limited, if any, human rights. Incomers are keen to exploit the resources of the traditional lands; resources are exploited regardless of the costs to the indigenous people and their traditional way of life. Their failure to adjust to the new way of life introduced by incomers has led to social problems such as drug abuse, alcoholism and antisocial behaviour. They are marginalised andstripped of their human rights.

35aIn much of Africa, the Middle East and southeast Asia.

bData not collected because countries not concerned about gender equality.In other words, these are likely to be countries where there is much gender inequality.

36Women and indigenous people. Also: the mestizos (mixed European and Amerindian descent).

How are human rights used as arguments for political and military intervention?

Different forms of geopolitical intervention

37This occurs when and where a state exercises its power to influence the course of events outside its borders. The former British empire involved Great Britain making many geopolitical interventions scattered around the world.

38Embargoes might be imposed by some countries on their trade with a country guilty of abusing human rights,the argument being that the offending country would be harder hit by the sanctions.

39IGOs, e.g.OECD andUN Human Rights Council.NGOs, e.g. Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch.

40Because interventions are often made for pragmatic (political, economic, military) rather than moral or humanitarian reasons. So if one state makes an intervention for whatever motive, other states will tend to be suspicious and think the worst.

41There are two routes: either directly by individual actions or indirectly through IGOs and NGOs.There are a number of direct actions that a state might take on its own. They are essentially of a threatening type, such as military action, cutting off trade links or stopping various forms of development aid. The indirect persuasion through IGOs is likely to carry more weight, but is unlikely to include a military option.

42A military intervention, particularly an invasion, will most likely end up removing the existing government. Once this happens, then the invading state will be obliged to assume the mantle of government. This in itself immediately challenges national sovereignty. This may be only temporarily until such time as a properly elected government is put in place.

Different focuses of development aid

43Development aid is delivered via two routes: bilateral and multilateral. Much bilateral aid is delivered under the heading of Official Development Assistance (ODA) or through IGOs such as the World Bank and WTO.Development aid is usually multi-targeted and aimed at such things as promotingrespect for human rights, improving access to education and healthcare, and confronting poverty and terrorism. A significant part of development aid takes place in the economic sphere, mainly through trade agreements, investment in specific projectsand providing technical assistance.Some might include some forms of military intervention as a part of development aid.

44Oxfam: active in helping deal with a wide range of issues, from poverty and human rights to health and education. Particularly active in providing emergency help in the wake of disasters.Tends to favour bottom-up approach to the provision of aid.

Amnesty International: main task is the uncovering and stopping of human rights abuse. Active at a governmental level, drawing global attention to offending countries.

45Reducing malaria deaths. Also: containing the spread of HIV/AIDS.

Protecting women’s rights. Also: protecting freedom of speech in totalitarian states.

46Dependency: it is often easier for a receiving country to continue to accept aid rather than start along the road to true independence, i.e. the country is able to stand on its own feet.

Emergence of elites: in countries where corruption prevails, particularly at a government level, it is easy for development aid to be siphoned off for the benefit of corrupt officials and their supporters. This situation encourages the emergence of powerful elites and is likely to increase inequalities.

In both instances, the increases are likely but not always so.

47The desire for economic development can becomeso focused and obsessive to the point that almost everything is sacrificed to this cause. In such a scenario, concern forhuman rights and minority groups is likely to be relegated to a low priority. Any protests related to these two issues would be seen as getting in the way of economic progress, and would be dealt with in an unsympathetic manner.

48The acquisition of land by corrupt governments who then use such land as bribes to win political support or to silence opposition. The land is simply grabbed and not paid for.

Military interventions

49Given this map, the Russians could easily justify their invasion of Ukraine in terms of needing to protect the ethnic Russians. However, the real motive was more likely thestrategic location of Ukraine and its command of the Black Sea — a vital gateway to oceans of the world for its fleet.

50The Allied invasion of Iraq in 2003. It did remove the dictator Saddam Hussein, but it also created a political vacuum in which the traditional animosity between the Shia and Sunni Arabs was allowed to devastate the country.Also that vacuum allowed IS toestablish a presence in the country. So that more than 10 years on, Iraq is in turmoiland lacks a stable government.

Also: Afghanistan.

51Helping to train military forces. Providing or selling military equipment. Sending troops to deal with insurgents or terrorists.

52Securing primary resources, particularly energy. Protecting strategic locations. Ensuring that a country does not fall into the hands of another superpower.

53The practice of sending a foreign criminal or terrorist suspect covertly to be interrogated in a country where there is less concern about the humane treatment of prisoners — a country that is not averse to torture being used to extract vital information.

54Debunking the whole myth of jihad.Winning the minds of the ordinary people, especially of those in the present conflict zones. Stopping the radicalisation of young people in non-Islamic countries. The mindless and wholly unproductive killing of innocent people by suicide bombers. The IS strategy of using innocent civilians as human shields in military operations.Giving the intelligence services all the resources they need to neutralise planned terror attacks.

What are the outcomes of geopolitical interventions in terms of human development and human rights?

Measuring the success of geopolitical interventions

55Reduced gender inequality. Reduced deprivation. Change in literacy rate.

56Freedom of speech and respect for minorities.

57Freedom of speech. Democratic government. Political parties.

58A society in which there is private ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange and their operation for profit.Characteristics of such a society include private property, waged labour, a price system and competitive pricing.

59While it is widely accepted that economic growth provides much of the fuel needed to drive development, there is so much more to human development than just economic progress. Measures such as per capita GDP and GNI serve to give a general indication of the level of development, but they ignore other vital aspects such as human welfare and quality of life. Human development has important social, political and even environmental dimensions.

60Human development is much more likely to flourish in a democracy than in a totalitarian state. The general attitude in the latter is to suppress people’s aspirations and to make them subservient to the state. In a democracy, official attitudes are rather different. People are prized as a resource and the quality of that resource is much improved by human development, particularly in the realms of education and health.