Emergency Management Has

STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS:

THE ROLE OF POWER AND DEPENDENCE

IN THE EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

PROFESSIONALIZATION PROCESS

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

of the

North DakotaStateUniversity

of Agriculture and Applied Science

By

Carol Lynn Cwiak

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Major Department:

Sociology, Anthropology, and Emergency Management

October 2009

Fargo, North Dakota

North DakotaStateUniversity

GraduateSchool

Title

STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS: THE ROLE OF POWER AND DEPENDENCE IN

THE EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT PROFESSIONALIZATION PROCESS

By

CAROL LYNN CWIAK

The Supervisory Committee certifies that this disquisition complies with North DakotaStateUniversity’s regulations and meets the accepted standards for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE:

Chair

Approved by Department Chair:

Date / Signature

ABSTRACT

Cwiak, Carol Lynn, Ph.D.,Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Emergency Management,College of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences,North DakotaState University, October 2009. Strategies for Success:The Role of Power and Dependence

In the Emergency Management Professionalization Process.Major Professor: Dr. George A. Youngs, Jr.

Power and dependence are characteristics of professions. Emergency management has been said to be on the path of professionalization for years, and yet the field has still not achieved the desired status of profession. This study examined the role of power and dependence in the emergency management professionalization process. More specifically it examined the possible relationship between emergency management practitioners’ perception of the field’s locus of control and the willingness of emergency management practitioners’ to utilize the power tactic of coalition formation to gain power in its relationship with the legislative community. This research was exploratory in nature as the primary conceptual frameworks had not been previously applied to the emergency management community. A dual qualitative and quantitative approach was used to explore the relevance and contextual meaning of the concepts within an emergency management framework and to more concretely asses the conceptual relationships examined by the research questions in this study.

This study found that there was not strong support in the emergency management community for coalition formation and no correlation was found between the willingness to support the power tactic of coalition formation and locus of control. This study likewise found that an imbalanced power relationship exists between the emergency management and legislative communities with the emergency management community being the lesser power player; the emergency management community is aware of the power imbalance and recognizes its lesser power status; and,the emergency management community is dissatisfied with its lesser status. Shared identity was identified in this study as an additional precondition to the utilization of coalition formation as a power tactic. The strategy perceived to be most effective to address the power imbalance between the emergency management and legislative communities was relationship-building with legislators that focused on increasing legislators’ knowledge of what emergency management is and why it is valuable. This strategy aligns with the power-dependence theory power tactic of demand creation. Professional organizations were viewed as one mechanism by which greater relationship building with the legislative community could occur. Recommendations for future research efforts that build on the concepts explored in the study are set forth.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This is my favorite part of this little book called a dissertation. And the truth be told, this was written in my mind long before I put the words to paper. I have been mulling over this piece for quite awhile wondering how to express with an appropriate amount of emphasis the gratitude that is due to others at the moment that my success is being noted. It is true what all those Academy Award winning actors and actresses say about success, it is not a singular effort, but instead a collaborative one. Oh, and what a collaborative it is, woven through years of experiences with a rich cast of characters and moments of joy and sadness, success and failure, pride and humility - all to arrive here.

When faced with the challenge of crediting those who have influenced your success, I have concluded it is better to be young and have led a less colorful and fascinating life. Having recently arrived at the milestone birthday of fifty, I have been reflecting on the person that I am today and I am reminded of how far I have come as a result of the kindness, support and love of so many others. I know I have been blessed, and I mean that recognition to include both the good and the not so good experiences which have very much formed this life that I have had thus far.

I have studied others’ acknowledgements with great interest. Folks thank parents, grandparents, spouses, children, teachers, friends, and so many others who have contributed to their success. Thanking everyone – it’s daunting. What if I forget someone important? And what is the measure of importance? Is it relative to time contributed or relationship or impact? I get a headache just thinking about it. I have pondered a possible grouping system - family, friends, co-workers, mentors, inspirations, motivators, et cetera. Oh, and do not forget ex-husbands, they have contributed as well. Really, it should be enough to say that my success is analogous to a penny drive wherein everybody brings a few pennies. At the end there is a mountain of pennies, but it was all those folks’ small contributions that made the mountain. So too am I, nothing more than a mountain of pennies.

So who are my contributors? Well, start with all the kids (and even some adults) who were mean to me all the years that I suffered with painful shyness…they made me want to be an advocate. All the educators in my life that empowered me to learn and excel…they made me want to champion excellence in others. All the folks that have crossed my path over the years that have taught me powerful lessons about honesty, integrity, dignity, patience and kindness…they made me want to live to my highest level of humanity. My family, from grandparents to grandchildren, who have loved me unconditionally even though I am so perfectly imperfect…they made me want to create a legacy of strength and achievement. My friends (the whole crazy, eclectic lot of them) who have lifted me up, kept me grounded, brought me to laughter and to tears…they made me understand the power of commitment and the importance of chosen family. And what of the many mentors that have invested in me in the belief that I have something worth nurturing…they made me aware that one of the greatest gifts you can give another person is your faith in their abilities.

Many have contributed to the person that is writing this acknowledgement today, but before I thank anyone else specifically I must thank one very important person that has traveled this sometimes crooked path with me without complaint – my advisor, mentor, committee chair and sometimes tortured colleague - Dr. George Youngs. I doubt that George Youngs had an inkling of the road he was embarking on when he first was assigned me as a graduate assistant. No doubt a full acknowledgement of the road he would travel with me might have caused him to turn and run in the other direction. Luckily, he had no idea what was in store for him; and luckily, neither did I. We have worked together now since 2002 and in all things he has retained his sense of humor, balance, integrity, and sensibilities. He has been both the wind beneath my wings and the weights on my hot air balloon.

Over time, George Youngs has softened my impatient edges and made me decidedly more thoughtful, rational and scholarly. He has given hundreds of hours of his time to bring me to this point and there are not enough words to express the gratitude I feel for his tireless investment in me. When it is said that a man is a gentleman and a scholar, they are speaking of such a man as George Youngs; and, regardless of where my path may lead me, one of the greatest honors I will have had in this life is to work with this man.

I would be remiss if I did not also mention the kinder, gentler Dr. Youngs, George Youngs’ wife Cheryl, who has been as gracious as the day is long about all the time that her husband has put into my development. It was Cheryl’s dissertation that sat on my desk for two years as a point of reference and a how-to style guide. It also served as a reminder that the time given to me was a gift from the Drs. Youngs collectively.

I am very grateful for the mentoring and friendship I have received in my department. I am particularly grateful for the support I have received from Dr. Daniel Klenow and Dr. Gary Goreham. In my development as a scholar, Daniel Klenow and Gary Goreham have served as the fun uncles who have imbued me with different perspectives and taught me how to logically circumvent some of my parent’s (George Youngs) wholly quantitative rules. Between the three - Drs. Youngs, Klenow and Goreham - I have had the benefit of three delightfully different personalities, styles and approaches, and I am richer for it. To be able to work on a day-to-day basis with people that raise you up is such a gift and truly a pleasure.

I also am very grateful to Dr. Elaine Lindgren who as a woman of conviction, intelligence, character and great humor serves as an enduring role model for me. To be able to learn from her and have her support during this experience has made it all the sweeter. I hope that in my years in the university system I will be able to contribute the passion and commitment she evidenced throughout her career.

I deeply appreciate the insight and suggestions that Dr. Robert Littlefield has contributed to my doctoral work and to my scholarly development. Robert Littlefield stepped in for a colleague in the middle of the game, but he never missed a beat. His excitement about emergency management, even though he is outside the department, has been invigorating.

Finally, I must thank the man whose passion for emergency management has inspired and challenged me to contribute to the field, Dr. B. Wayne Blanchard. Wayne Blanchard has empowered my enthusiasm with his enduring support and tireless commitment. The trust he has placed in me to represent the field of emergency management I have never taken lightly. My contributions to the field are unequivocally a direct result of his belief in the value of my work. I am so privileged to have had the opportunities Wayne Blanchard has provided me and forever grateful for his friendship and faith in me.

DEDICATION

I dedicate this to all those who have given so much of themselves to the emergency management community. It is my great honor to work amongst you.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ……...………………………………………………………………………. iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...…………………………………………………………...…. vi

DEDICATION ……...……………………………………………………………...…….. ix

LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………...……….…….. xi

LIST OF FIGURES………...…………………………………………...……...... …….…xii

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………. 1

CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW…………………...…………………………... 17

CHAPTER III. METHODS………….....……...………………………………………... 36

CHAPTER IV. RESULTS…………………..…….……...……………………………... 51

CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION ………………………………...... ….……………………102

REFERENCES…………………….…………………………………………………….128

APPENDIX A. INTRODUCTORY LETTER

AND SURVEY INSTRUMENT……………...………………....……..139

APPENDIX B. NARRATIVE RESPONSES …………………………….……………..154

APPENDIX C. IRB APPROVAL LETTER .…….………...……….………...………...198

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Field Locus of Control Measurement Statements ………...... 88

2. Individual Locus of Control Measurement Statements...... 89

3. Field Locus of Control...... ……………………….……..… 90

4. Individual Locus of Control ...... ………………….…………..….…...... 90

1. Multiple Regression Analysis: Collective Action .…………….……….…………….92

6. Power Tactic Statements…………….………..……………………….……………… 96

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Participant's Current Workplace………...... ………...……………………………….... 40

2. Reads the Literature…………………………..……………………….……………… 41

3. Knowledgeable of Theories, Concepts, and Practices Prior to Entering the Field ...... 42

4. Active in Professional Organizations...... 43

5. Emergency Management Degree...... ……………………….……..…43

6. Satisfaction with Status...... ……………...……….…………..….…...... 60

7. Legislators' Understanding of the Importance of Strong Programs …………….…….64

8. Emergency Management Power in Determining Legislative Policy Sufficient? …...... 69

9. Relative Power of Legislators...... …………………….…….……..…70

10. Legislators Depend on Emergency Management as Primary Source ……….……… 72

11. Legislators Do Not Depend on Emergency Management as Primary Source ……… 73

12. Emergency Management Needs the Support of Legislators……….…………...…… 74

13. Emergency Management Does Not Need Legislators ………….…..…….………… 75

14. Role of Professional Organizations in Enhancing Status ……………..…….……… 82

15. Value of Collective Action in Elevating Emergency Management's Status …..……87

16. Cohesiveness of the Emergency Management Community …………..…….……… 97

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Emergency management is at a crossroads. Historically, practitioners of emergency management have occupied positions with modest pay, marginal status, and considerable responsibility but little authority. In recent decades, the emergence of professional emergency management associations, undergraduate and graduate programs in emergency management, accreditation, and certification efforts all suggest that the field is moving toward becoming a profession (Wilson, 2000). Yet even as emergency management continually seems to be moving toward meeting the sociological criteria (Hodson & Sullivan, 2001) for such a designation, the field has still not yet arrived.

What will it take for emergency management to finally become an accepted profession? One answer is to review the list of criteria offered by sociologists to identify a field as a profession and examine what criteria are yet to be met. In the pages to follow, such criteria will be reviewed; but, a second answer is to suggest that much of the struggle for a field to become a profession is to gain power. Power is a dynamic property of a field and gaining power in an unbalanced relationship requires the use of power tactics. In the present study, I will take a unique perspective on emergency management and its ultimate success or failure as a profession by viewing efforts to professionalize as a power struggle wherein emergency’s management’s success in gaining power will result in dependence from others.

The issue of emergency management’s power became salient with recent, rapid reversals in the status of the field’s premier agency, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). In less than a decade, FEMA went from a highly respected cabinet level agency, to a troubled and dismembered agency buried severallayers deep in the U.S. government’s biggest and newest department—the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), to its most recent position, wherein some of its former status has been re-established (Rubin, 2007). This cycle of empowerment, loss of power, and re-empowerment repeats similar power shifts in the early history of emergency management (Rubin, 2007). Many of the factors that have contributed to this cycle have been external to the field of emergency management such as ideological shifts in national politics (Rubin, 2007) and “focusing events” including major natural disasters and terrorist events (Birkland, 1996). Lacking power to control its own direction when faced with suchcyclical shifts, the field of emergency management has been in a largely dependent status relative to the legislative community. In an effort to understand this situation and assess the likelihood that emergency management may gain increasing power and status in the future, the powerrelationship between the emergency management and legislative community must be examined.

Power-dependence theory suggests that one party’s power lies in another party’s dependency (Emerson, 1962, p.32). The greater the second party’s dependency on the first, the greater the power the first party has over the second.The second party’s dependency is associated with the extent towhich the second party has access to alternative sources of resources and the extent to which the second party desires the first party’s resources. The parties involved in these power relations can be an individual or group (i.e., person-person, group-person, or group-group) (Emerson, 1962, p.32).

Power-dependencetheory identifies four balancing operations, or power tactics, that can be used by a weaker party to gain power and balance the relationship: coalition formation, seeking alternatives, demand creation, and withdrawal. In the present study, I argue that emergency management’s status as a profession will depend in part on the extent to which representatives of the field perceive that it can successfully utilize power tactics to help emergency management emerge as a recognized profession.

While participants were queried on all of the power tactics associated with power-dependence theory in this study,a specific focus was placed on one power tactic--coalition formation.Research suggests that coalition formation is often a successful power tactic relative to the more powerful party in a relationship (Caplow, 1956; Cobb, 1982; Gamson, 1961; Karathanos, 1994; Lawler & Youngs, 1978; Mizrahi & Rosenthal, 2001). The present study examined the willingness of emergency management practitioners to advocate such an approach to further the field’s empowerment and the factors that might be associated with that willingness. Specifically, it is argued that usage of this tactic requires an internal locus of control. The extent to which emergency management practitioners sense that the field has an internal or external locus of control and whether those emergency management practitioners who perceive the field to have an internal locus are more likely to promote coalition formation within the emergency management community as a strategy to achieve its goals is examined.

Brief History of Emergency Management

Preparing for, responding to, recovering from, and mitigating against disaster is hardly a new phenomenon; these activities are, at their most basic presentation, part of human preservation. However, the embodiment of a government function at the local level that is tasked with responsibility for these activities is a relatively recent occurrence that grew out of two separate, but related government-oriented agendas--the ad-hoc federal response to sporadic major disasters during the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century (Platt, 1999; Rubin, 2007) and the civil defense concerns that arose out of the Cold War (Bea, 2007). As a result of these two separate agendas, Congress passed two acts in 1950 (Disaster Relief Act and Federal Civil Defense Act) that began to more definitively define the government function of emergency management.