Dr. Katherine Heenan

Herrick, Ch 8

Dr. Katherine Heenan

English 472

Spring 2007

Herrick Notes

Herrick, James. A History and Theory of Rhetoric: An Introduction. 3rd edition. New York: Allyn and Bacon, 2005

Chapter Eight

Enlightenment Rhetorics

late 17th – early 18th century known as the Age of Enlightenment
periods marks a transition in western thought when the questioning of the received truths of Christian tradition, the elevation of rationality over other sources of truth, looking for solutions to social problems by means of the scientific method, and perceiving the universe as governed by inviolable physical laws
18th century marks a period in which rhetorical theory turned away from its traditional concern for the invention of arguments and toward aesthetic matters of style and good delivery
change influenced by Ramus and Descartes who moved argument and proof out of the domain of rhetoric and into the domains of logic, dialectic, and math
a rhetorical theory that distinguished the discovery of knowledge through reasoning from the communication of that knowledge
thus invention is subordinate to concerns about style, taste, delivery and the imagination
rhetoric again moved to the forefront of education but less concerned with inventing/producing public discourse and more concerned with consuming public discourse

Vico on Rhetoric and Human Thought

Giambattista Vico 1668-1744

Italian philosopher, Lawyer, historian, student of ancient Rome, rhetorician
born in Naples, Italy, June 23, 1668; d. there, Jan. 22 or 23, 1744
attended a Jesuit school, and was for a time enrolled in the law school of the University of Naples
first intellectual influences were Plato and Machiavelli and he was especially adept in the fields of jurisprudence, linguistics and history.

Vico versus Descartes

Designed a “new science,” quite different from Descartes
in On the Study of Methods of our Time (1708), Vico argued that Descartes’ mathematical proofs were just as reliant on symbols as were the orations of rhetoricians—that is, math was not somehow founded on “transcendent, necessary, and unchanging truths” (176).
despite Vico’s claims, the idea that science would provide a rational basis for the future gained influence
study and practice of rhetoric provided only real challenge to the rise of science
Vico argued that rhetoric, not reason, was the basis of social life, and that the “growing hegemony of scientific thinking threatened to undermine the common beliefs and values—the sensus communis—that provide the basis for society
speech, especially poetic speech, provides the foundation of civilized society—not philosophical or scientific reason

The Rhetoric of the Imagination

Vico argued that language originated with rhetorical devices native to the human imagination
Vico held that rhetoric was essential to all of the arts, and all human ways of making sense of the world. By means of language, humans have imposed order on a fundamentally disordered nature.
The "humanization of nature" takes place, not through rational or inferential thought, but rather through ingenium, or, the innate human capacity to grasp similarities or relationships. The person of practical judgment must be able to discover similarities or analogies between unrelated things. This ability allows human beings to make sense of the world around them, which in turn allowed the initiation of civilization.
Vico held that this innate human capacity for recognizing or grasping similarities among different objects was central to the linguistic nature of thought. Analogic thinking allowed insights which were crucial to the ordering and humanizing of the world

Rhetoric and the Evolution of Human Thought

Thinking based on ingenium is more rhetorical than logical; it results in insights rather than in deductions. It is therefore actually productive of new knowledge, and not merely of reformulations of things already known.
Vico posited that human thinking developed according to four rhetorical tropes.
The first of these was metaphor, or a comparison of things not apparently similar. Early poets, for instance, compared objects to people, and thus anthropomorphised nature by attributing to inanimate objects human qualities such as emotion.
The other tropes important to the development of human thought were metonym (the substitution of the part for the whole),
synecdoche (wherein the whole object represents the part), and
irony (where indirect statement carries meaning).

Rhetoric in British Education

Wilbur Samuel Howell writes that rhetoric was viewed in the eighteenth century as the means of transmitting knowledge from the learned to the general populace. British education in rhetoric was pursued during the eighteenth century with various goals in view, and in response to pressing social changes.
First, rising scepticism in Britain caused writers in the Churches of England and Scotland to press rhetoric into the service of Christian apologetic, preaching, and writing.
Second, writing and reading of English prose began to assume a new prominence during the century as British culture shifted increasingly from oral to written discourse, and as nationalism elevated the English language to a new level of prominence in Britain. This new emphasis on English prose added to the demand for instruction in rhetoric.
Third, English was displacing Latin as the language of scholarship, which allowed access to learning to a vastly increased number of British subjects. An important component of education typically was some study of rhetoric.
Fourth, urbanization was bringing people from the English country-side, from Scotland, and from Ireland to urban centers such as London. These new city-dwellers sought to eliminate their rustic accents which limited personal advancement. They sought education in proper diction, which was an element of rhetorical education.
Fifth, closely related to this phenomenon was the desire of many younger Britons to advance socially. Though class distinctions remained rather rigid in eighteenth-century Britain, the society was relatively open for an individual's social advancement when compare to other European societies of the time. Personal advancement depended on personal improvement, and no improvement was more important than that of one's speech. Improving one's speech required some instruction in rhetoric.
Sixth, an increasing number of professions--such as those in law, politics, and religion-- demanded skill as a public speaker. Again, demand for instruction in rhetoric grew in response to this demand.
Finally, famous English writers of the day such as Richard Steele, Joseph Addison and Jonathan Swift had written critically of the quality of both speaking and writing in England. Such criticism lent some urgency to the search for instruction in proper and effective management of language, which meant instruction in rhetoric

The Emerging Public, and Changing View of Rhetoric

expanding public domain in the period
movement away from desire to win debates and toward emphasis on ordinary people sharing information and ideas in increasing number of public venues
rhetoric increasingly seen as an important skill of public life

The Elocutionary Movement

draws attention to performance and rhetoric’s use as a method for refining public manners, poise, expressiveness
although class distinctions remained fairly rigid, social advancement possible, especially for those who learned to speak like a gentleman or lady—who were able to engage in eloquent expression

Sheridan

was particularly concerned with the poor quality of delivery in British public speaking, especially preaching
Delivery was a particular concern—saw it as intimately connected with convincing an audience of the urgency and truthfulness of one's message
Sheridan and other elocutionists emphasized delivery over the other traditional elements in the rhetorical art, such as invention or arrangement
sought to provide students with a guide to proper and effective public speaking, as well as the reform of education in Britain to correct the neglect of elocution or rhetorical delivery
argued that poor preaching and speaking were actually threatening the health of religion, constitutional government, and morality.

Belletristic Movement: Kames and Blair

During the eighteenth century, British interest in literature and writing expanded
The study of rhetoric both shaped and was shaped by this rapidly growing interest in literature, its structure and its effects.
The belletristic movement expanded rhetoric into a study of literature, literary criticism, and writing generally.
The movement was marked by an increased attention to matters of style as over against invention.
The belletristic movement thus represents an extension of rhetorical education and practice well beyond the classical boundaries of persuasive oral public discourse.

Hugh Blair

Blair wrote his Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres with the goal of improving the lives of his students.

For Blair, "taste" referred to a developed appreciation of aesthetic experiences.
Taste can be improved through experience and education.
Thus, Blair urges on his readers the development of their capacity for taste toward the enhancement of their private lives, their lives beyond work.
The development of taste, which enhances the enjoyment of diversions such as literature, is recommended to Blair's students as a means balancing the demands of work and the public sphere, with the retreat and enjoyments of private life.

George Campbell

advanced a "scientific" rhetoric, but science for him meant something like what philosophy means today--an organized and rational account of a subject.
His rhetoric reflects advances in psychology.
Campbell connected eloquence to psychology.
His theory of eloquence was based on the belief that the mind responds only to ideas it acknowledges as good or true.
Campbell's rhetorical theory reflects the faculty psychology view that the mind consisted of the understanding, the imagination, the passions, and the will.
For Campbell, each faculty spoke virtually its own language.
For instance, the

understanding spoke the language of logic, while the passion spoke the language of emotion. Each part performed a particular function. T

he understanding was informed and, when satisfied, responded with conviction.

The imagination perceived beauty.

The passions and will moved one toward action.

Thus, each faculty has a part to play in the persuasive process. As he writes, "all the ends of speaking are reducible to four; every speech being intended to enlighten the understanding, to please the imagination, to move the passions, or to influence the will."

Richard Whately

an active preacher and controversialist during much of his later life, and was a witty and even caustic polemicist.
In Elements of Rhetoric Whately's concern was to write a book that would assist both the preacher and the apologist or defender of Christianity.
students, then, would learn to use rhetoric to promote and defend divine truth. Whately's rhetoric is practical, and is focused on argument.
moved concepts like presumption and burden of proof out of the chambers of the Parliament, and made them part of public arguments about religion, justice, and politics.

Terminology

ingenium—The innate human capacity to grasp similarities or relationships, as discussed by Vico
metonym—The rhetorical device or trope in which the part substitutes for the whole.
belletristic movement—Rhetorical movement in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries that emphasized considerations of style in rhetoric.
burden of proof—The responsibility to bring a case against the status quo sufficient to challenge its enjoyment of presumption.
moral reasoning—Eighteenth-century term for reasoning from evidence to more or less probable conclusions on practical issues; the kind of reasoning employed in rhetoric, and appropriate to issues such as those presented by politics, ethics, religion and economics.
presumption—A "pre-occupation of the ground," in Whately's terms. An idea occupies its place as reasonable or acceptable until adequately challenged.
taste—In Kames and Blair, a developed appreciation of aesthetic experiences.