Learning
7 Learning
· Learning Objectives
· Chapter Outline
· Key Terms
· Key Contributors
· Teaching the Chapter
· Lecture/Discussion Suggestions
· Classroom Activities
· Experiencing Psychology
· Critical Thinking Questions
· Video/Media Suggestions
· References
· Sources of Biographical Information
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
7.1 Define learning and distinguish learning from reflexes, instincts, and the behavioral changes resulting from maturation. (p. 211-212)
7.2 Summarize the history of interest in classical conditioning. (p. 212-213)
7.3 List and explain the major concepts of classical conditioning by referring to Pavlov’s classic experiment of the conditioning of the salivary response in a dog. (p. 213)
7.4 Describe higher-order conditioning and give examples. (p. 213-214)
7.5 List and explain four important factors affecting the strength of classical conditioning, offering examples of each. (p. 214-215)
7.6 Explain the difference between stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination. (p. 215)
7.7 Explain how extinction happens, and how spontaneous recovery may occur. (p. 215-216)
7.8 Summarize the classic “Little Albert” study, and then describe how classical conditioning may be applied in understanding the features of drug dependence and taste aversions. (p.216-219)
7.9 Summarize what is known about the biological constraints on classical conditioning. (p. 219-220)
7.10 Explain the core concept of operant conditioning and summarize the history of interest in this type of learning. (p. 220-221)
7.11 Define behavioral contingency and then list and offer examples of four concepts related to positive reinforcement. (p. 221-222)
7.12 Distinguish between shaping and chaining, giving examples of each. (p. 222-223)
7.13 Distinguish between continuous and partial schedules of reinforcement, describing the four types of partial schedules, and explain how they influence the performance of a behavior. (p. 223-225)
7.14 Define negative reinforcement and describe two forms of negative reinforcement. (p. 225-226)
7.15 Distinguish between extinction versus punishment as techniques that decrease the probability of a behavior, emphasizing the special issues that surround the use of punishment to change behavior.
(p. 226-227)
7.16 Describe five areas where operant conditioning principles have been applied to change behavior.
(p. 228-232)
7.17 Summarize what is known about the biological constraints on operant learning, mentioning instinctive drift and biological preparedness. (p. 232-233)
7.18 Explain the significance of prediction, expectancy, and blocking in the cognitive perspective on learning. (p. 233-235)
7.19 Explain the significance of the classic Tolman study of latent learning and Bandura’s work on observational learning and social learning theory in supporting the cognitive view of learning.
(p. 235-238)
Extended Chapter Outline
I. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov is credited with stimulating research on associative learning.
A. Principles of Classical Conditioning
In classical conditioning, a stimulus comes to elicit a response that it would not normally elicit.
1. Acquisition of the Classically Conditioned Response
In classical conditioning a stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) comes to elicit a response (the conditioned response) that it would not normally elicit by being paired with a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus) that already elicits that response (the unconditioned response).
a. Higher-Order Conditioning
This is the result of associating a neutral stimulus with an existing CS.
b. Factors Affecting Classical Conditioning
The greater the intensity of the UCS and the greater the number of pairings, the stronger the conditioning.
2. Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination in Classical Conditioning
Stimulus generalization occurs when the CR follows in response to stimuli that are similar to the CS. Stimulus discrimination occurs when the individual responds to the CS but not to stimuli that are similar to the CS.
3. Extinction
Extinction refers to the process by which the CS diminishes and eventually stops occurring if a CS is repeatedly presented without presenting the UCS. When a CR that has been subjected to extinction is again elicited by a CS, the process is called spontaneous recovery.
B. Applications of Classical Conditioning
Applications of classical conditioning include explaining phobias, explaining drug dependence, and the acquisition of taste aversions.
1. Classical Conditioning and Phobias
Unpleasant noises have classically conditioned children to develop phobias.
2. Classical Conditioning and Drug Dependence
The physiological effects of drug use may classically condition drug users to be dependent on drugs.
3. Classical Conditioning and Taste Aversions
The taste of previously eaten foods has been associated with nausea, thus causing the phenomenon of classically conditioned taste aversion.
C. Biological Constraints on Classical Conditioning
Not all stimuli and responses are equally associable.
II. Operant Conditioning
The roots of operant conditioning can be traced to Edward Thorndike’s law of effect, which states that a behavior followed by a satisfying state of affairs is strengthened and a behavior followed by an annoying state of affairs is weakened.
A. Principles of Operant Conditioning
Skinner refers to the relationships between behaviors and their consequences as “behavioral contingencies.”
1. Positive Reinforcement
A behavior that is followed by the presentation of a desirable stimulus becomes more likely to occur in the future. The Premack principle states that a more probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for a less probable one. Primary reinforcers are biological and unlearning; secondary reinforcers are learned through association with a primary reinforcer. A discriminative stimulus informs an individual when a behavior is likely to be reinforced.
a. Shaping and Chaining.
Shaping is reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior. Chaining is a procedure used to establish a series of behaviors.
b. Schedules of Reinforcement
With a continuous schedule, every desired behavior is reinforced. With partial reinforcement, reinforcement is given for some of the desired behaviors. Partial schedules may be fixed or variable and may reinforce after a number of responses (ratio) or after a time period (interval).
2. Negative Reinforcement
A behavior that brings about the removal of an aversive stimulus becomes more likely to occur in the future. Escape and avoidance learning are two types of negative reinforcement.
3. Extinction
Behaviors learned through operant conditioning are subject to extinction.
4. Punishment
Punishment decreases the probability of a behavior by presenting an undesirable consequence of that behavior.
B. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Applications of operant conditioning include animal training, child rearing, improvements in education, the understanding and treating of certain psychological disorders, and biofeedback.
1. Operant Conditioning and Animal Training
Skinner and his colleagues have been pioneers in using and shaping and chaining to train animals to perform behaviors that are not part of their normal repertoires.
2. Operant Conditioning and Child Rearing
Parents have used operant conditioning to eliminate undesirable behaviors and reinforce desirable behaviors.
3. Operant Conditioning and Educational Improvement
Teachers have used positive reinforcement to improve classroom performances of their students. Such instances include the token economy, programmed instruction, and computer-assisted instruction.
4. Operant Conditioning and Psychological Disorders
Operant conditioning, specifically learned helplessness, has enhanced the understanding of depression and has also been used to change abnormal behaviors, in a process known as behavior modification.
5. Operant Conditioning and Biofeedback
Biofeedback is a form of operant conditioning that enables an individual to learn to control a normally involuntary physiological process or to gain better control of a normally voluntary one when provided with visual or auditory information indicating the state of that response.
C. Biological Constraints on Operant Conditioning
The Brelands found instinctive drift in operantly conditioned animals. Seligman has found that there is a continuum of preparedness for certain behaviors, ranging from prepared to unprepared to contraprepared.
III. Cognitive Learning
In the past few decades, many psychologists have criticized the associationistic explanation of learning for viewing human and animal learners as passive reactors.
A. Cognitive Factors in Associative Learning
According to cognitive theorists, secondary reinforcers gain their ability to reinforce behaviors because they predict the occurrence of primary reinforcers. Another source of support for the cognitive explanation is the phenomenon of blocking.
B. Latent Learning
Cognitive theorists maintain that learning can occur without revealing itself in observable behavior.
C. Observational Learning
Bandura has identified four factors in observational learning: attention, memory, ability, and motivation.
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Learning
Key Concepts
Classical Conditioning
classical conditioningconditioned response (CR)
conditioned stimulus (CS)
conditioned taste aversion
extinction
higher-order conditioning
learning
spontaneous recovery
stimulus discrimination
stimulus generalization
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
unconditioned response (UCR)
Operant Conditioning
avoidance learning
behavioral contingencies
behavioral preparedness
biofeedback / chaining
computer-assisted instruction
continuous schedule of reinforcement
discriminative stimulus
escape learning
extinction
fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement
fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement
instinctive drift
instrumental conditioning
law of effect
learned helplessness
negative reinforcement
operant conditioning
partial schedule of reinforcement / positive reinforcement
Premack principle
primary reinforcer
programmed instruction
punishment
secondary reinforcer
shaping
Skinner box
spontaneous recovery
token economy
variable-interval schedule of reinforcement
variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement
Cognitive Learning
blocking
latent learning
observational learning
social learning theory
Key Contributors
Classical ConditioningIlene BernsteinJohn Garcia
Ivan Pavlov
John B. Watson /
Operant Conditioning
Neal MillerDavid Premack
Martin Seligman
B.F. Skinner
Edward Thorndike /
Cognitive Learning
Albert BanduraRobert Rescorla
Edward Tolman
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Learning
Teaching the Chapter
There are generally three problems associated with teaching the chapter on learning. The first is that students do not readily see the role that conditioning plays in their lives—sometimes they will actively reject the idea that they can be so easily conditioned. This is easily overcome by the generous use of examples of conditioning that occur in everyday life. Some examples include the development of conditioned fears such as to rats, snakes, elevators, open spaces, etc., and the development of habits such as eating while watching television. One other example familiar to students who have pets is how quickly their pets will come when the food bowl is rattled or the can opener is operated (if canned food is used). Additionally, students may view psychology as a science that is designed to develop new manipulation techniques. You may want to point out that conditioning happens all the time. Psychology is describing a naturally occurring process.
The second problem is that most students have trouble understanding the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment. Careful attention to the presentation of this material and the use of examples should alleviate this problem.
The third problem is that students may struggle with seeing the differences between operant and classical conditioning. Emphasize that classical conditioning is the association between two stimuli whereas operant conditioning is the association between a behavior and a stimulus.
This is an ideal chapter in which to teach students the skills to apply behavior modification principles to their own behavior. One of the better self-help books that you might recommend is Towards a Self-Managed Lifestyle, by Williams and Long (3rd ed.). You might also spend some time discussing tips for learning in any situation (otherwise known as study skills). Students usually appreciate this information, especially when combined with behavior modification principles, so they can learn to change their own study habits. There are also several good books available that deal specifically with the topic of study skills:
Brown, R. T. (1991). Studying psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Fenker, R. M. (1981). Stop studying. Start learning. Fort Worth, TX: Tanyrum Press.
McKowen, C. (1979). Get your A out of college. Los Altos, CA: William Kaufman.
Pauk, W. (1984). How to study in college. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Robinson, F. (1970). Effective study. New York: Harper & Row. (This is the original SQ3R technique.)
Williams, Robert L., and Long, J. D. (1991). Manage your life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Wolf, S. (1986). Techniques for success: College reading and study skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Lecture/Discussion Suggestions
1. Classical Conditioning Application: Bedwetting. This example comes from the work of Mowrer (1960), whose wife was working in a home for children. One of the common problems they had was bed-wetting, often by children approaching adolescence or even beyond. Assuming that the normal bladder training had not been accomplished, Mowrer set out to design a simple device that would awaken the child before he wet the bed. (I am using the pronoun “he” deliberately; more than 75 percent of children with this problem are males.) Let us look at this from the point of view of classical conditioning. The desired response is waking up. On most mornings, how do you wake up? I prefer a gentle rub from a warm hand, and a smooth loving voice that says, “Honey, it’s time to get up.” However, like most of us, I am awakened by an alarm clock. If we use an alarm as the UCS, the CS must be a full bladder, but how do we make the technological connection? If we use a catheter to measure bladder pressure, we defeat the purpose of the training. It is possible to attach strain gauges to the lower abdomen, but children move around in their sleep, and the strain gauges fall off. Mowrer hit on a very simple idea, still being used today. The child sleeps on a special pad in which two conductive layers are separated by a thin millipore layer. When a drop of urine falls on the pad, it closes the circuit between the two conductive layers, and the alarm sounds. Batteries power the circuit, so no danger of shock exists. Sweat and water do not trigger the circuit, since they cannot pass through the millipore layer.
Ah, you say, but the child has already begun urination. How will the training work? It is none other than Pavlov himself to the rescue. In his work with dogs, Pavlov noted that early in training the CR was very slow in coming. After a number of conditioning trials, the time between CS and CR shortened dramatically. In fact, even during training trials, the CR would occur prior to the delivery of the UCS. Pavlov called this phenomenon the inhibition of delay, and asserted that one characteristic of the CR is that it migrates backward in time, occurring earlier and earlier on subsequent trials. With our young boy, at the outset of training a few drops of urine will flow prior to the alarm. After several nights of this, the alarm will begin to sound just prior to the flow of urine. Of course, at the sound of the alarm the child will get up, go to the bathroom, and reset the device before getting back into bed. To be sure there is not too long a delay between the time the bladder reaches capacity and triggers urination and the sounding of the alarm, the child must sleep nude, at least from the waist down. These devices can now be purchased from most major stores and from many pharmacies as well. Sometimes you need only purchase the pad; the alarms are rented by the week.