Prepared by:

Ms. Aida Karazhanova, PhD, Kazakhstan

Mr. Ethelmark Durant, MA, Barbados

Mr. Takhir Ermatov, PhD, Uzbekistan

Mr. Luther Ken, MA, PNG

Ms. Olga Mykhaylyshyn, PhD, Ukraine

Mr. Joyce Opondo, MA, Kenya

Mr. Hernando Villamizar, BA, Colombia

CONTENTS

BACKGROUND......

Existing Water Supply System And Management in Bozkol

ANALYSIS OF THE Water Supply Regime IN BOZKOL

CASE STUDIES ON WATER SAVING TECHNOLOGIES

Recommended Water Saving Technologies for Bozkol Village

References:......

1

SUITABLE WATER SUPPLY AND SAVING STRATEGIES

FOR BOZKOLVILLAGE IN THE ARAL SEABASIN OF KAZAKHSTAN

BACKGROUND

Overall situation in the Aral SeaBasin

The indiscriminate effluent pollution and uncontrolled use of the waters of the Aral Sea Basin of Central Asia have resulted in lack of sufficient or potable water for the local populations, and high degradation of the environment with resulted low economic growth of the region. Irrigated agriculture and irretrievable water losses resulted in reduction of water flow into the Aral Sea and has influenced regional ground-water level. The waters of the Syrdariya River which flows into the Aral Sea carries in its undercurrent, a multi-component mixture, whose salinity reaches 3-4%, and its complete content is still unknown. Wastes of large industrial plants, drainage waters and flows from fields, and household flows of hundreds of settlements from the three states (Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan) through which territory Syrdariya river is running, are accumulated in the undercurrent. All these make it impossible to use the River water as a source of drinking water. Artesian wells and mine wells which are the main sources of drinking water are mostly salted up to levels that are much higher than the admissible salt content of drinking water /2/.

The decrease in water flows resulted in drying of delta basins, great amount of wetlands degradation and breaking down of the infrastructure of hydro water works. The dry sea beds in places from 10 – 100Km long give rise to salty dusty storms which have negatively influenced local people’s health. There is increase of pulmonary diseases such, as pulmonary tuberculosis, asthma, bronchitis, anemia, allergic and dermal diseases, and diseases of genitourinary organs. To support the population’s health under the existing ecological situation, it is necessary to provide measures on sanitary-hygienic conditions and consumed water quality improvement.

The local people are not able to provide minimum amount of food for themselves and their families, since they lack good water quality for irrigation.

This situation has resulted in low level of human development in the area. Excessive and inefficient use of water for irrigation is partially explained by the fact that there was no applicable mechanism for water pricing, water resources are poorly managed, irrigation infrastructure is weak, the lands are used improperly and farms are managed inefficiently. Water is delivered for the users of basic consumption zones under low-level price, and there are no incentives for water conservation (for example, choice of more proper time for irrigation and land leveling.

All these problems could be resolved by changing water resource management system and agricultural structures. To provide maximum efficiency of the new system on water resource management, it is necessary to engage local communities in system management.

There has been concern from the local population towards a solution to address the environmental problems in the region. A number of new water users associations have been created and several pilot projects initiated to develop irrigation systems, pasture management and potable water supply. Each association has a formal link to the local administrations through local advisory committees to develop and manage the projects. The projects are included in the priorities of the Kazakhstan National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP)/1/ and are supported by the on-going umbrella program of the local, national and international communities (United Nations Development Program - UNDP, Capacity 21 Trust Fund, International Foundation for Aral Sea , local NGOs, etc) /2/.

This paper proposes possible practical strategies for the provision of clean drinking and irrigation water in one of the villages in Kazalinsk rayon.

Bozkolvillage

Bozkol village is situated in Kazalinsk rayon about 120 km away from the district center Aiteke Bi. It is a small village with a population of about 1100 (210 families). There are 162 pensioners, 181 employed, and 405 unemployed. The main occupation is cattle breeding.

Due to regional problems of lack of water in 1970 –1980 and degradation of fodder land, the fodder production changed for transportation of fodder from other oblast of Kazakhstan. By 1990 the heads of animals decreased twice and by 1996 the state cattle of village did not exist.

Nevertheless increasing the head of animals in Bozkol village is restrained by two factors, one of them is the low social-economic condition that is typical for villages at present. The second social-ecological factor includes a low fodder base due to lack of water, unavailability of private land property and degradation of pastures and fodder land.

Bozkol village was situated in Bozkol gulf of the Aral Sea. Due to decreasing of the level of the Aral Sea Bozkol sea gulf dried out. On the eastern coast a big area of the dried bottom was bared. By 1985 in the territory of Bozkol a sandy-salty steppe with 80 km width was formed and by now it has reached 120 km. The sandy-salty steppe is a seat of salty-dusty bearing-out. Starting from 1975 very strong salty-dusty carrying –outs were noted that carry out sand, salt and dust up to 200 km, dust and salt up to 500 km or more.

Agriculture. Under these conditions, plant growing in Bozkol village is prevalent in a form of traditional vegetable and water-melon gardens. During the last years, absence of market of fruits and vegetables’ supply encouraged the vegetable and water-melon crops development. Self-provision with vegetable and water-melon products is one of the sources for additional revenue of the majority of population. Employment in individual agricultural sector, that constitutes more than a half of Bozkol population is limited by absence of close located territories, appropriate soil, and lack of water for irrigation.

About 15 ha of farms are 10 – 15 Km away from the village and forces the farmers to live close to them due to inadequate security and poor irrigation facilities. They constitute about 24% (50) of the families. Another 38% of families (80) with 25ha of land under agriculture live closer to the village but they receive a lower harvest due to lack of irrigation waters. The other 38% do not have land. The 50 families occupying land far out of the village intend to return to the nearest territories of the village if regular supply of water can be provided through Kandiarik canal /9/.

Existing Water Supply System And Management in Bozkol

Irrigation Water

Bozkol village is situated 40 km away from the SyrdaryaRiver. Direct water supply from the Syrdarya river is not possible due to low river level. Water is therefore transported from Kazalinsk hydro water works, which is 70 km away from Bozkol village, through a number of canals. The water that comes through the irrigation canals is delivered for the needs of the settlement, and irrigation fields (grain crops, vegetable and melon gardens) and supports the existing fodder territory (irrigated pasture and hay fields ).

The water comes from Kazalinsk hydro water works through a LeftSidedMainCanal then through Zhanarik canal to the irrigated agricultural fields. The water is supplied to Bozkol village from Zhanarik canal through the small canal Kandiarik, the width of which is 12 meters, the depth is 2,0 meters and length is 10 km. In the pre-reforming soviet period the state organizations and enterprises dealt with water management, distribution and maintaining the hydro water works. The water was managed and distributed in each village and agricultural enterprise up to the level of the water consumers.

Currently, management functions and water distribution has been given to private farmers and partnerships that do not have experience in water management, distribution and exploitation of water works. As a result, problem of lack of water is created by unjustified over expenditures of different water consumers, disputes between them and water quality degradation. The population cleans the canals and maintains the water works manually with their own efforts. Often these activities are implemented without the participation of specialists, and equipment and without keeping the requirements of melioration norms and regulations, due to insufficiency or lack of funds /2,9/.

Drinking Water

The government of the Republic of Kazakhstan is using the following sources to supply water to the village: -:

  • Using the existing canal, which is located in the southern part of the village
  • Water supply along the central street of the village by installing a new canal
  • Supply water to the northern part of the village through existing channels

The government has since chosen to supply water using the Kandiarik canal and the artesian bore holes. It is from these two options that the analysis and strategies on water use within this current project will be developed.

In consideration of the problems mentioned earlier being experienced by the Aral Sea basin in terms of water loss from various sources, an economic analysis must be made to choose the right water saving system to implement. The Table represents the costs of rural water supply in Thailand (US dollars).

This area shows many similarities in geographic, topographical and social phenomena and hence will act as a basic idea in the generation of the type of system that would prove applicable to water saving success in the Aral area.

As is, the current consumption levels of the 2100 person population is 0, 180 Mln.m3/year, of which 0,770 m3/sec is used from the canal. The other water source is the Artesian Bore holes constructed in 1975.

When the water quality of Kandiarik canal is worsened or the water is unavailable water consumption needs are covered by canal resources on 70% and by boreholes on 30%. For economic – technical use consumption needs are covered by artesian bore holes in 70%, and by the canal in 30% cases

The artesian boreholes were built in 1973-75 with 200 to 400 meters depth. These artesian bore holes supplied drinking water to population till 1990 through the water purification unit ECOS-50. The water purification unit malfunctioned, thereafter; the inhabitants use water directly from the boreholes. The assessment of boreholes showed that the salinity of artesian bore holes is from 2,5 up to 3,7 gram /liter. The water does not meet sanitary norms. The state standard for drinking water salinity is from 0,5 up to 1,0 gram per liter.

Kandiarik canal remains the main source of drinking water for village population. The canal water is in use for 9 months in a year. In spring and autumn canal water is directly used. In summer, when the water level of the river and main canals get low, water of Kandiarik canal turns sour and the inhabitants use the boreholes’ water. In winter the people use ice from the canal for drinking. The ice, however, does not provide sufficient water for the whole population during the three (3) months of winter /2,9/.

ANALYSIS OF THE Water Supply Regime IN BOZKOL

The irrigation water norms and terms of the water consumption are taken from Kazalinsk Rayon Water Department. A schedule of water supply calculating the volume of water consumption is set up (See table 1 below). The volumes of the water consumption are calculated according to vegetation period of the growing of plantings and according to terms of consumption and seasonal period. Coefficient 2,1 is a complex loss of water, it consists of loss for transpiration of planting which is equal to 1,5 and loss of the irrigation canal, which is equal to 1,4.

TABLE 1 CONSUMPTION OF WATER IN BOZKOL PER ANNUM

Jan / Feb / Mar / April / May / June / July / Aug / Sept / Oct / Nov / Dec / Volume of consumption Mln. m3/ year / Usage from canal,m3/ sec
Water supply during the year
Water reservoir Irgekum-1,134 million m3/year for: / 1,134 / 0,048
Ice of reservoir / Water for population –2100 people х 270 days х 100 liters х 2,1=0,120 million m3/year.
Water for animal = 0,060 million m3/year. / Ice of reservoir / 0,180 / 0,770
Woodland belt -33,2 ha х 5,3 00 m3/ha х 2,1=0,370 million m3/year / 0,370 / 0,018
Vegetable and water melon gardens -110 ha х 6 000 m3/ha х 2,1=1,386 / 1,386 / 0,533
Pasture and hay fields-130ha х
5 000 m3/ha х 2,1=1,37million m3/year / 13,70 / 0,180

Total

/ 16,77 / 1,549

Analysis of technological options available to Bozkolvillage

Tables 2, 3, 4, below indicate the various technological options available to the community. The level of service rises with each step. This paper represents the analysis of the current level of the village and the current costs of the technologies, and proposes possible practical implementation options with the available resources. The materials used could be reviewed within /9,10,11/ references. Possible benefits are: - access to clean water, time saving, reduced drudgery, better living condition, health benefits, and reduction in time and energy which can then be put to other economic activities.

TABLE 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Costs in USD/Type of System / Rain-water jar / Rain-water tank / Shallow Dug well without hand pump / Shallow Dug well with hand pump / Drilled deep well / Pond / Weir
Capital Cost / 19 / 245 / 93 / 540 / 2660 / 1850 / 10000
Maintenance Cost / 0 / 1.85 / 0 / 93.00 / 93.00 / 3.70 / 18.50
Total Annual Cost / 2.50 / 29.00 / 15.00 / 165.00 / 440.00 / 305.00 / 1625.00
Households Served / 0.31 / 1.78 / 20 / 20 / 20 / 20 / 100
Annual Cost/household / 8.15 / 16.00 / 0.75 / 8.15 / 22.00 / 15.25 / 16.25

Table 3. Analysis of Water Supply and Saving Technologies

to BozkolVillage

*This is good if the water purification unit is restored and updated

Step / Service Type / Water Source / Quality Protection / Water Use LPCD[1] / Energy Source / O/M / Costs / Remarks
5 / House Connections / Bore* holes
Canal / Good - May need no treatment / 100-150 / Electric
Gravity / Chem. Supplies/parts
Trained operator / High capital and maint costs / Most desirable but high resource needs
4 / Yardtaps / Bore Holes
Canals / Good)
May need (nt / 50-100 / " / T/O reliable gas system, chem. Supplies and spare parts / " / Very Good System, fuel and institutional support critical
3 / Standpipes / Bore Holes
Canals / Good
May need
No treatment / 10-40 / Electric
Gravity
Wind
Solar / " / Moderate capital and OM costs / Cost competitive with hand pumps
2 / Handpumps / Bore Holes / Good / " / Manual / Repair techs / Low cap & OM costs / Good access villager sustainable
1 / Improved traditional Services / Bore Holes
Canals / Variable-Poor / " / " / General Upkeep / Very Low Cap& O/M / Works if source is bad
0 / Traditional Services / Both / Variable -Poor / " / " / " / " / Starting Point.

TAble 4. Community Water Supply Technology Costs

(for 400 community members) mm

Low / Low / Low / High / High / High
Technology / Hand pumps / Standpipes / Yard taps / Hand pumps / Standpipes / Yard taps
Capital Costs (USD)
Wells / 4000 / 2000 / 2500 / 10000 / 5000 / 6000
Pumps (hand/motor) / 1300 / 4000 / 4500 / 2500 / 8000 / 9000
Distribution / - / 4500 / 16000 / - / 10000 / 30000
Sub Total / 5300 / 10500 / 23000 / 12500 / 23000 / 45000
Cost per Capita / 13.3 / 26.3 / 57.5 / 31.2 / 57.5 / 112.5
Annual Cost
Annualized capital / 700 / 1500 / 3200 / 1400 / 3000 / 6000
Maintenance / 200 / 600 / 1000 / 400 / 1200 / 2000
Operation (fuel) / - / 150 / 450 / - / 300 / 900
Sub total / 900 / 2250 / 4650 / 1800 / 4700 / 8900
Haul Costs ( labor) / 1400 / 1100 / - / 3000 / 2200 / -
Total (including Labor) / 2300 / 3350 / 4650 / 4800 / 6900 / 8900
Annualized cost per capita Cash / 2.3 / 5.6 / 11.6 / 4.5 / 11.8 / 22.3
Annualized Coat per capita cash and labor / 5.8 / 8.4 / 11.6 / 12.0 / 17.3 / 22.3

CASE STUDIES ON WATER SAVING TECHNOLOGIES

TABLE 5 . SUMMARY OF WATER SAVING METHODS IN OTHER COUNTRIES.

Methods

/

LOCATION

/

DESCRIPTION

1. Farm Reservoirs / Cicily, Italy / In Italy, experiences of wastewater storage are few /5/. Recently in Cicily, in the east of the isle, farm reservoirs have been built to where treated and untreated municipal wastewater is stored outside the irrigation period. These reservoirs, mainly located in the Plain of Catania, have capacities up to 50, 000 m3, are generally earth-made and not expensive (cost is les than US1/m3 without lining; Barbagallo et.al. 1994
2. Storage in Pipelines / Water is taken directly from outlets of depuration plants and distributed through pipelines. These small reservoirs operate as batch reactors; they are filled in the winter season, the availability is fully used; before the irrigation season, evaporation and infiltration losses are reintegrated /6/.
3. Dams, Weirs, Swamps/Canal Dredging, Shallow and Deep Wells / Thailand / There are 392 large and medium reservoirs built with a total storage capacity of 68, 000 million m3 and tens of thousands of small scale projects such as dams, weirs, swamp/canal dredging, swallow and deep wells, etc/7/.
4. Drip Irrigation and Micro-Sprinklers / Israel / In Israel, in the agricultural sector, substantial savings have been achieved through technological improvements in irrigation methods. Israel is a world pioneer in the development of Drip Irrigation and Micro-Sprinklers, which reduce water loss from evaporation by as much as 20%. Computerized, content in the soil and volumetric values for quantity control, have led to additional water savings /8/.
5. Water Usage Norms for Each Unit manufactured in a Plant / Israel / Water allocation, then, is a function of the established water usage norm multiplied by the scope of production. A plant exceeding this norm is subject to payments four times more costly than the subsidized norm /6,8/.
6. Re-circulation of Cooling Water and Steam / Israel / Additional activities undertaken in the industrial sector include the re-circulation of all cooling water and steam, the introduction of accessories for efficient water use such as pressure reducers, and the treated industrial waste-water /6,8/
7. Reducing Water Wastage from Pipelines / Israel / Efforts have been concentrated on reducing water wastage from urban pipeline system through the replacement and maintenance of pipelines, which are subject to frequent explosions and leaks. Municipalities have undertaken improved watering techniques for public lawns and gardens, including the practice of nighttime sprinkling /6,8/.
8. "Don't Waste Water', Every Drop Counts. Media, Newspaper etc. / Israel / In the domestic sector, the Public Relations Department of the Water Commission has initiated a national campaign for the efficient use of water under the motto: " Don't Waste Water-Every drop Counts"/6,8/
9. Irrigation water as a safe source of drinking water / Pakistan / Developing countries' efforts to supply drinking water to their rural communities have focused primarily on digging deep tube wells and installing hand-pumps to exploit bacteriological safe groundwater. But in large areas of South Asia, the Middle East and East Africa, groundwater is not an option because of high arsenic, fluoride, iron, or salt levels. Irrigation water is often the only water in the large areas of Pakistan where groundwater is too saline for human use, villagers divert Canal irrigation water into small community reservoirs-called diggis to meet their domestic needs. This water is either carried home by hand or is supplied to the household by means of PVC pipes and hand and motor pumps, for those who can afford the required equipment. In order to improve both quantity and quality, the research suggests that making it possible for people to pump irrigation seepage water into large storage tanks in their houses-thereby ensuring a continuous supply of water for drinking, sanitation and hygiene- would greatly reduce the incidence of diarrhea, especially when combined with a campaign to promote better hygiene. As a second phase to this research, several pilot projects have been started to develop and test possible interventions-including chlorination of irrigation water, low-cost water storage containers and a sewerage scheme. The focus of this case study was to highlight activities that can be implemented by the communities themselves /4/.
19. Water use efficiency / Egypt / Water is delivered from the High Aswan Dam (HAD) to farmers through systems of canals and pump stations. Most farmers pump water from local canals, although some systems are gravity flow. At the local level, water is delivered on a rotation basis in most areas, depending upon the cropping requirements. Although many farmers use both surface water return flows and shallow groundwater, to date the annual water available has been adequate with the exception of drought years in the mid-1980’s, when storage in the HAD reached critical minimums. However, rapid population growth (2.5 percent per year), increasing pollution from municipal and industrial sources, and ambitious plans to extend irrigation to up to an additional 2 to 2.5 million feddans, have begun to put a premium on intensive water management and “saving” water in the current system. Moreover, the current system of canals and pumping stations are deteriorating due to lack of maintenance. Several alternatives have been suggested for increasing water use efficiency. However, some alternatives have been determined to be politically unacceptable, including establishing water rights or water prices. However, it should be recognized that the most, if not all, of the implications drawn from the Egyptian case are very likely to be applicable to other river basins and other countries. Egypt’s water management system management is no better and no worse than most and its managers operate under some relatively severe political constraint. The examples are simply drawn to make points about potential improvements in water use. One implication of these efforts is that technical solutions do offer opportunities for better water management and improved productivity, but that technical solutions can be ineffective if economic and political constraints are not taken into account /3/.

Recommended Water Saving StrategiesforBozkolVillage

On the basis of the materials represented above and the according references, we propose the following strategy to be used in order to address the problems of the village in terms of good quality water management.