AustralianHeritageDatabase Places for Decision Class :Indigenous
Identification
List:National HeritageList
NameofPlace:Wurrwurrwuy
OtherNames:
PlaceID:106088
FileNo:7/04/004/0008
NominationDate:28/01/2009
Principal Group:Aboriginal Art Site
Status
Legal Status:29/01/2009 -Nominated place
Admin Status:15/03/2013 -Assessment byAHCcompleted
Location
NearestTown:Yirrkala
Distancefromtown(km):10
Directionfromtown:SE
Area (ha):1.41
Address:Yirrkala, NT,0880
LGA:Unicorporated NT NT
Location/Boundaries:
About 1.41ha, 10km south east ofYirrkala, beingthoseparts ofNorthern TerritoryPortions
1044 and 1692 designated Northern TerritoryPortion 6647(A) and enclosed byafenceline located on aseries ofstraight lines connectingin succession theMapGridofAustraliaZone53 coordinates listed hereunder:
Easting(metres)Northing(metres)
1. 710097 8636036
2. 710131 8636024
3. 710181 8636007
4. 710223 8636049
5. 710262 8636086
6. 710226 8636124
7. 710186 8636159
8. 710145 8636123
9. 710105 8636083
10. 710102 8636042
1 710097 8636036
Assessor's Summary ofSignificance:
Thestonepicturesat Wurrwurrwuymight benationallysignificantas arare exampleofstones
arranged to depict secularsubjects ratherthan thearranged stones beingassociated with ceremonyand thesacred.Thestonepictures depict a rangeofsubjects includingAboriginal camps, fish traps and imagesrelatingto theMacassantrepangindustryincludingpraus, canoes, thestone fireplaces wheretrepangwereboiled and Macassan houses. Thedepictions ofpraus
atWurrwurrwuyshow theinternal arrangements ofthevessels, which is rarein Aboriginal depictions ofprausin anymedium. Thecreatorsofthestonepictures would have acquired theirknowledgeoftheinternal arrangement ofprausduringvisits to, orvoyages on, such vessels.
DraftValues:Criterion / Values / Rating
BRarity / Thestonepicturesat Wurrwurrwuymight haveoutstandingheritage
valueto thenation as arare exampleofstones arranged to depict utilitarian and secularobjects ratherthan thearranged stones being associated with ceremonyand thesacred.It is also aplacewith rare depictions oftheinternalarrangements in praus. This is knowledge that the creators would haveacquired eitherduringvisits to or voyages on such vessels. / AT
HistoricThemes:
Nominator's SummaryofSignificance:
Beginningin the1700s and endingin 1907, Macassansfrom theCelebes inIndonesiastarted
comingto theshores ofnorthern Australia. Eachyeartheyarrivedat thebeginningofthewet season between December and Januaryto fish forand process trepang, leavingat thebeginning ofthedryseason between April and June. Thetrepang was traded into China.
Macassancamps and trepangprocessingsites havebeen recorded alongthe coast from theGulf ofCarpentariain theNorthern Territoryto theKimberleyin Western Australia. Theseplaces show that theMacassanscameto Australiabut provideno information about the relationship between theMacassansand Aboriginal people. Weknow that someAboriginal people, and in particulartheYolnguofArnhemLand,adopted some elements ofMacassan material culture and incorporated otherelements into their ceremonies. Examples ofthe formerincluded the Yolngulipalipaordugout canoewhich is based on small Macassan outrigger canoes, while examples ofthelatterinclude representations ofMacassananchors used in Yolnguceremonial sand pictures.
At Wurrwurrwuytherearestonepictures ofMacassanpraus, canoes, houses, fireplaces where trepangwereboiled, trepangdrying houses, ahouse forstoringwood and stones forsharpening iron knives. Therearealso pictures of anAboriginal fish trap and Aboriginal dwellings. Two of thepictures ofpraus show details oftheinternalarrangement ofthesevessels.
When MacknightandGrayrecorded thesitein 1967 two Aboriginal informants, Mung- gurrawuyand Mawalan,wereableto explain how thedivisions within thepictures oftheprausrepresented different parts ofthevessel: the crewsquarters, thegalley, theeatingspace, the store and thewatertank.Theyalso provided names forthedifferent parts ofpraus, the rudder, bowsprit and thetripod mast with its sail and rigging. Thesepictures show that Yolngu visited trepangsites and spentenough timeon praus to learn thevarious parts ofthevessels and where the crew livedand ate. This is consistent with historical records showingthat Aboriginal people travelled in praus to the Celebes and moredistantports likeSingapore.
Thestonepicturesat Wurrwurrwuyareofoutstandingheritagevaluebecausetheytell thestory of contact between Yolnguand Macassans in the1700 and 1800s. Thereis agreaterdiversity
ofMacassan materialculture recordedat Wurrwurrwuythan theMacassanmaterial culture recorded in rockart. Thesiteis also rarebecausetherearedetailed oral traditions about it, which include evidencethat Yolnguadopted Macassan words fordifferentparts ofpraus into theirvocabulary. Thesestone arrangements areunusual because, unlikemost Aboriginal stone arrangements, theyarepictures ofhistorical objects ratherthan symbols orsacred images.
Description:
Thestonepicturesat Wurrwurrwuythat depict aspects oftheMacassantrepangindustrylieon
an open rockyshelf about ten kilometres south east ofYirrkalain Eastern ArnhemLand, Northern Territory. The areais bounded to thenorth byasmall creek: on thewest byastrip of dense coastal vinethicket and to the east and south bythesea. Thevegetation on theshelfis low grass and stunted shrubs.
Thestonepicturescoveran areaofabout 80 metresby70 metres. Theyaredivided into three groups with afew outlyingfeatures. Thegroup ofpictures at thesouthernend ofthesitemainly depicts Macassan subjects in simpleoutlines. Thenortherngroupalso depicts Macassan subjects, but thestyleisdifferent, with stones ofdifferent sizes used togiveweight to parts of thepictures. Thewesterngroupcomprises amixtureofMacassanand Aboriginal subjects.
Analysis:
Criterion(a):Theplace has outstanding heritagevalue to thenation becauseofthe place’s importanceinthe course, orpattern, ofAustralia’s cultural history;
Macassansbegan to visit thenorthern Australian coast before1650 (Taconet al. 2010). By
1750 theyhad established atrepangprocessingindustrywhich supplied this delicacyto the Chinesemarket (Macknight 1972, 1976, 1986, 2011). Thetrepangindustryis important in the courseofAustralia's cultural historyas it is the first export industryto be established on the continent and forthefirst timedraws Australiainto abroader regional economy. Theresultant interactions between Aboriginal people andIndonesians in ArnhemLandand on the adjacent islands led to changes inAboriginal subsistenceeconomies and exchangenetworks.
Evidence forthis industryis provided bythedistribution oftrepangprocessingsites on the Kimberley(Crawford 1968, 2001; MorwoodandHobbs 1997), theArnhemLandand Groote Eylandt (Macknight 1976: Ch 5) coasts. Thepotteryin thesesites and thedistribution of tamarind trees,an exoticspecies, provideevidence forthepresenceofMacassans on thenorth Australian coast.
Interactions between MacassansandAboriginal peoplein theKimberleyappearto havebeen different to theinteractions in ArnhemLand. Relationships in theKimberleyappearto have been hostile and thereis little evidencethat Aboriginal peoplewereheavilyengaged in the trepangindustry(Australian HeritageCouncil 2010). Anthropologists havelongrecognised, however, that in ArnhemLand interactions with Macassans led tochanges in Aboriginal material culture(Warner1932), ceremonies and songcycles (Thompson 1949; Berndt and Berndt 1954; Russell 2004).
Recent research on theeffect ofMacassans onAboriginal societyin ArnhemLandand the adjacentcoastal islands has focused on sites occupied byAborigines in thepast (Mitchell 1996,
2000; Clarke2000a, 2000b; Mayet al. 2010) andAboriginal rock art (Clarke and Frederick
2006; Taçonet al. 2010).Comparisons ofthe contents ofmiddens on theCoburgpeninsula showed that theAboriginal economychanged with theMacassantrepangindustry. Mitchell (1996) found that middens which accumulated afterthearrival ofMacassanscontain agreater
numberofdugongand turtle remains than earliershell middensand relates this to theuseof dugout canoes and steelheads on fishingspears. Dugout canoes wereadopted from Macassansand replaced theearlierAboriginal bark canoes,and steel and iron wereimportant goods obtained from theMacassans. Mitchell also found an increased amount ofexoticstonein middens that accumulated duringMacassan timeswhich suggests that tradebetween
Aboriginal groups on thecoast and theinteriorexpanded at this time (Mitchell 2000). Research on Aboriginal sites on GrooteEylandtalso suggests changes to Aboriginal economies and settlements afterthestart ofthetrepangindustry(Clarke2000a, 2000b). OnceMacassans started to cometo theisland, Aboriginal peopleoccupied new sites closeto thesea. Theiruse
ofshellfish also changedwith agreater relianceonmudflat species andan increased rangeof shellfish beingtaken. TheMacassan period Aboriginal middensalso contain a rangeof introduced material including glass and pottery.
Research onrockart in theWellington Ranges inArnhemLand has shownthat Macassanpraus wereprobablysailingoffthenorthern Australian coast before1650 which is much earlierthan previouslythought (Taçonet al. 2010). ClarkeandFredrick (2006)havelooked at the interaction between Aboriginal peopleand Macassans on GrooteEylandt through the
depictions ofpraus in therock art. WhileMacassans wereprocessingtrepangon Groote Eylandt, themasts ofthepraus would havebeen lowered. Theyfound that all baroneofthe paintings ofpraus on GrooteEylandt haveraisedmasts and sails that areset. Manyofthe paintings also show human figures at thetop ofthemast. Theyrelatethis to theMacassan practiceofhavingaprayer-manclimb up themast and chant when it is raised foravoyage. Theysuggest that the figures on top ofthemast and thesails emphasisethesocial importance ofthe arrival and departureofMacassans.
Wurrwurrwuylacks physical evidence from theprocessingoftrepangand thereareno middensat theplacethat show thewaythat Aboriginal peoplemodified their economyto accommodate interactions with Macassans. Unlikedepictions ofpraus in rockart, thestonepictures at Wurrwurrwuyshow thedivision ofspaceinsideprausand this is evidenceforAboriginal knowledgeofthewaythat praus wereorganised.Thestonepicturesat Wurrwurrwuyprovide important information about theinteractions between Aboriginal people and Macassans. However, Wurrwurrwuydoes not meet thenational heritagethreshold under criterion (a)when compared with theMacassantrepangprocessingsites (Macknight 1976: 71-74), Aboriginal midden deposits (Clarke2000a, 2000b) and rock art (Clarke andFredrick 2006)on Groote Eylandt and similarsiteson theCoburgPeninsula(Macknight 1976: 62-70; Mitchell 1976,
2000) although theplacehas stateheritagevalue.
Wurrwurrwuydoes notmeet national heritagethreshold undercriterion (a).
Criterion(b):theplace has outstanding heritagevalue to thenation becauseoftheplace's possessionofuncommon, rareorendangeredaspects ofAustralia's cultural history;
Thestonepicturesat Wurrwurrwuyareaveryrare exampleofstone arrangements used to depict utilitarian objects and secularplaces. Thethreedepictions ofMacassanpraus, onehighly schematic, are exceptionallyrareimages showing theinternal arrangement ofthesevessels. Thesethreedepictions are an expression oftheknowledgethat Aboriginalpeoplewould have acquiredeitherduringvisits to orvoyages on praus.
Aboriginal stone arrangements occur everywherein Australia (McCarthy1940; Massola1963; Campbell and Hossfeld1966; Rowlandsand Rowlands 1966, 1985; Stockton and Rogers 1979; MacIntyre-TamwoyandHarrison 2004; Bowdler2005; Ross 2011). Theycomein avarietyof forms and mayhaveanumberofdifferent purposes. Thereappearto bethreesimple forms of
stone arrangements: monoliths, heaps or cairns, and circles. At someplacesthesesimple forms are combined into morecomplexarrangements (McCarthy1940; Rowlandsand Rowlands
1966; Ross 2011). ThepurposeofAboriginal stone arrangements is varied and includes their role as sacred sites associated with particular creation beings, as totemicsites associatedwith particularspecies and theirusein a rangeofceremonial activities including initiation, death and increaseceremonies(McCarthy1940; Bowdler2005). Aboriginal peoplemaydescribea particularstonearrangement as aparticular animalspecies, but the form ofthe arrangement
does not normallymatchthe form ofthespecies. For example, theKantyupeoplein CapeYork describealineof elongatestones, up to threefeethigh, set on endalong aridge,as a fileof ancestral kangaroos: buck, doe, andyoung(McCarthy1940: 185). Examples ofsymbolicand totemicstone arrangements also occurin ArnhemLandand on the adjoiningislands. For example, McCarthy(1953a, 1953b)describes stone arrangements on GrooteEylandt and the Ancestral Creation Beings that theysymbolise. This includes parallel linesofstones that represent apathwaythatan ancestral snakefollowed as well asarrangements that represent othertotemic ancestors.
Theonlyknown sites with stones arranged as naturalisticorhighlyschematised depictions of non-sacred orsecularsubjects areWurrwurrwuyand asiteon Hardy Island(Macknightand Gray1970). Theimagesat WurrwurrwuydepictMacassanpraus, two types ofMacassan canoes, houseswith multiple rooms, fireplaces wheretrepangwas boiled, trepangdrying houses, ahouse forstoringwood,and stones forsharpeningiron knives. Therearealso pictures of an Aboriginal fish trapand Aboriginal dwellings. Thesiteon Hardy Island has aless diverse rangeofimages. Herethestone arrangements depict thelines of fireplacesused forboiling trepang. Thereare,also, some arrangements that can no longerbedeciphered. This is avery restricted rangeofimages when compared with those at Wurrwurrwuy.
Whilethestonepictures at Wurrwurrwuyarea rare exampleofstones beingarranged to depict Macassan subjects, images ofthesesubjects also occurin the rock art ofArnhemLand and in modern bark paintings.Macassan images are found in most parts ofArnhemLand and the adjoiningislands, includingtheWellington Ranges (Macknight 1976: plate12; Taçonet al.
2010; Mayet al. 2010),GrooteEylandt (McCarthy1960; Clarkeand Fredrick 2006),Bickerton
Island(Turner1973)andChasmIsland(McCarthy1960). Thesubject matterofthis art is broad and includes praus,canoes, apossiblesmokehouse and knives.
Prausareoneofthemore common items ofMacassan material culture found in rock paintings. A detailed analysis ofprau paintings on GrooteEylandt byClarke andFrederick (2006) identified a consistent setof features in theimages: rudders, deckingmasts,sails and rigging. Theyalso found that alloftheseprausexcept onehad theirsails set, and that theimages often includeahuman figure atthetop ofthemast. Theypoint out that when themast was raiseda prayer-man would climbto thetop and chant. Theysuggest that the figureson top ofthemast and thesails emphasisethesocial importanceofthe arrival and departureofMacassans.
Theseimages areverydifferent from thethreerepresentations oftheprausat Wurrwurrwuy. Themost complexdepictions shows asideview ofaprauwherea ruddercan beseen but the mast and sails arenot represented (MacknightandGray1970: 12). The remainingtwo depictions areveryschematicwith onehavingaroughlypyramidal form and theothera rectangular form. Theprau shaped likeapyramidincludes amast and alineofstones that represents rigging attached to asail (Macknightand Gray1970: 16). Thestonelines in all three representations dividetheinsideofthe figureinto compartments representingthecrew's quarters, thegalley, thefood store, and wherethewaterwas stored. This form of representation maps theinternal arrangements oftheprauand demonstrates a familiaritywith sleepingand eating arrangements on thesevessels, which isaverydifferent depiction to that found in the rock art.
Thestonepicturesat Wurrwurrwuyareofoutstandingheritagevalueto thenation as a rare exampleofstones arranged to depict utilitarian and secularobjects ratherthan beingassociated with ceremonyand thesacred.It is also aplacewith raredepictions ofprausshowingthe internal arrangement ofthesevessels. This is knowledgethat thecreatorswould haveacquired eitherduringvisits to orvoyages on such vessels.
Wurrwurrwuymayhaveoutstandingheritagevalueto thenation forcriterion (b).
Criterion(c): the place has outstanding heritagevalue to thenation becauseoftheplace's potential to yieldinformationthatwill contribute to an understandingofAustralia's cultural history;
Macknightand Gray(1970)worked with theAboriginal custodians oftheplace, Mung- gurrawuyand Mawalan,when theyrecorded theplace. TheAboriginal custodians provided comprehensiveinformation about thehistoryofthesite and themeaningofeach stonepicture. It is unlikelythat theplacehas thepotential toyield moreinformation thatwill contributeto an understandingofAboriginal-Macassan interactions.
Wurrwurrwuydoes notmeet national heritagethreshold undercriterion (c).
Criterion(e): the place has outstanding heritagevalue to thenation becauseoftheplace's importanceinexhibiting particularaesthetic characteristics valued by a community or cultural group;
Thestonepicturesat Wurrwurrwuyareactivelypromoted on theinternet as aplacetourists can visit to learn more aboutAboriginal-Macassan interactions in thepast (seefor example australia.com/attractions/wurrwurrwuy-garanhan-macassan-beach-interpretive-walk/). While thesesites referto thehistorytold bythepictures and theuniqueness ofthestone arrangements, thereis no mention oftheirbeauty. Similarly,Yolngu talk about thepictures beingmade as part ofhistoryand do not referto thebeautyoftheimages(WurrwurrwuyNational Heritage nomination).
Wurrwurrwuydoes notmeet thenational heritagethreshold undercriterion (e).
Criterion(i): theplace has outstanding heritagevalue to thenation becauseoftheplace's importanceas partofIndigenous tradition;
Theimportanceofthesiteis demonstrated bythephotographs in Macknightand Gray(1970) which show that the custodians had kept thesiteclearofweeds, majorgrowth, and obstruction. Yolngucustodians havenot described anytraditions, customs orbeliefs associated with the
site. Rather, Yolnguelders madethepictures to remind theirpeopleofthepast Macassanpresence (Dhimurru Aboriginal Corporation 1999:24).
Wurrwurrwuydoes notmeet national heritagethreshold undercriterion (i).
History:
Duringhis epic circumnavigation ofAustraliain 1802-1803 Matthew Flinders (1814: Chapters
7 and 8) found bamboo frameworks, lines ofstone fireplaces, pieces ofcloth and thestumps of
treescut down with metal axes, at anumberofplaces alongthe coast oftheGulfof
Carpentaria.Heinterpreted this as evidenceofChinesevisits to this part ofAustralia. On 16
February1803, hemet afleet ofMacassanprausanchored in thewaters offtheEnglish CompanyIslandsgroup.It was herethat helearntfrom Pobassoo, the captain ofthe fleet, that Macassanprauscametothe coast ofnorthern Australia every yearon thenorth-west monsoon winds to collect and drytrepangorbêchedemerwhich theythen sold to theChinese(Flinders
1814: Chapter9).
Interactions betweenAboriginal peopleandMacassans
Flinders’encounterwith Pobassoo is the first Australian record ofthenorthAustralian trepang industry. Macassans hadprobablystarted to visit thenorthern Australian coast before1650 (Taçonet al. 2010)but Dutch EastIndiaCompanydocuments suggest that theintensive catchingand processing oftrepangfortheChinesemarket probablybeganin about 1750 (Macknight 1986, 2011: 133-134). Macassan involvement in theindustryended in 1906 when theSouth Australian Government, which administered theNorthern Territoryat that time, restricted theissuingoflicenses to locallyownedvessels.
Thedistribution oftamarind trees (anexoticspecies), trepangprocessingsites and thedepiction ofMacassanprausand otheritems ofMacassanmaterial cultureinrock art providedirect material evidence fortheMacassantrepangindustry.Trepangprocessingsites arefound on the Kimberleycoast (Crawford 1968, 2001; Morwoodand Hobbs 1997) and onthetheArnhem Landand GrooteEylandtcoasts (Macknight 1976:Chapter5). Whiledepictions ofprausand items ofMacassan material culture arenot unusual in the rock art ofArnhemLand(Taçonet al.
2010; Mayet al. 2010)and offshoreislands likeGrooteEylandt (McCarthy1960; Clarkeand Frederick 2006), Chasm Island(McCarthy1960)and BickertonIsland (Turner1973), such imagesarerarein theKimberley(O'ConnorandArrow 2008). Thesedataand Aboriginal oral tradition suggest that therelationship between MacassansandAborigines in theKimberleywas different to therelationship between Macassansand Yolngu with the formerrelationship characterisedbyhostility(Australian HeritageCouncil 2010).
Aboriginal peoplein Arnhem adopted anumberofitems ofMacassan material culture (Warner
1932; Thompson 1949; Berndtand Berndt 1954;Russell 2004)including dugout canoes and iron. This transformed Aboriginal economies so theyhad an increased marine focus. This is shown bythelargenumbers ofdugongand turtlebones in middens on theCoburgpeninsula that date from thetimeoftheMacassantrepangindustry(Mitchell 1996)and an increased marine focus onGrooteEylandt (Clarke2000a, 2000b). Thereisalso evidence for changes in thewayAboriginal peopleused space andevidence for changes in theirexchangenetworks (Mitchell 2000; Clarke2000a, 2000b; Mayet al.2010).
Aboriginal peopleliving in ArnhemLand incorporated thememoryofMacassans into their social and cultural life.For example, Macassansand theirvoyages areimportant in some ceremoniesand songcycles wheresongs mayreferenceMuslim prayers (Thompson 1949; Berndtand Berndt 1954;Russell 2004; Macknight2011). Oral tradition also provides accounts ofAboriginal peopleworkingforMacassans on trepangsites and undertakingvoyages on praus to theCelebes and further afield (Berndt andBerndt 1954:43, 51-53; Macknightand Gray
1970). The closerelationship between Macassansand Aborigines is reflected in thelarge numberofMacassan borrowed wordsfound in Aboriginal languages in ArnhemLand and on GrooteEylandt which includes words fordifferent parts ofprausand the riggingon these vessels. Aboriginal peoplein these areas usetheMacassannames forsomeparts ofprausand their riggingthataredepicted in rock art (Turner1974: 54, 180-181).
Thestonepictures atWurrwurrwuy
Thestonepicturesat Wurrwurrwuyarepart ofthestoryofMacassan Aboriginal interactions in ArnhemLand. Theyliewithin theterritoryoftheLamomirriclan but on thedeath ofthelast responsibleLamomirriman theyweretaken into the custodyoftheGumatjclan. A father and son, Yumbuland Dhatalamirri, created thepictures, probablyin thesecondhalfofthe nineteenth century(Macknightand Gray: 1970).Oral histories recorded in1967 indicatethat Yumbul, possiblywith the aid ofsomeofhis fellow clansmen, madethe first pictures. Thesite was entrusted to his second son, Dhatalamirri, who added furtherpictures at alaterdate.
Thestonepicturescreated byYumbuland Dhatalamirri depict Macassanpraus, canoes, houses with multiple rooms, fireplaces wheretrepangwereboiled, trepangdrying houses, ahouse for storingwood, and stones forsharpeningiron knives. Therearealso picturesof an Aboriginal fish trap and Aboriginaldwellings that maynot havebeen madebythefather and son.
When MacknightandGrey(1970: 5)recorded thesitein 1967 two Aboriginal informants, Munggurrawuy(aGumatjcustodian) and Mawalan(a relativeofYumbuland Dhatalamirri), wereableto explain how thedivisions within thepictures oftheprausrepresented different parts ofthevessel: the crews'quarters, thegalley,the eatingspace, thestore and thewatertank. Theyalso provided Macassan names forthedifferent parts ofpraus, the rudder, bowsprit and thetripod mast with its sail and rigging. Thesepictures show that Yolnguvisited trepangsites and spent enough timeon praus to learn thevarious parts ofthevesselsand wherethecrew
livedand ate. This is consistent with historical records showingthat Aboriginal peopletravelled in praus to theCelebes (Berndtand Berndt 1954:54-58; Macknight 1972: 286), atrip that was madebyMunggurrawuy'sfather (McKnight andGray1970: 6). The custodians told Macknightand Gray(1970: 37)thatWurrwurrwuywas alegacyfrom thepast with nosacredassociations. Theyfelt that it was useful as it providedyoungermen with someideaofthewayoflifeof Macassans who had cometo the areato collect trepang. Thepictures areapermanent reminder ofYolngu knowledgeabout this past.
Condition:
When first recorded in the1960s therewas someminordamageto thesitefrom buffalo mainly
at thesouthern end. Thereis no evidenceforsubsequent deterioration. Thesitehas recently been fencedand paths and interpretivesigns havebeen installed. Theplaceis maintained by DhimurruCorporation Aboriginal Rangers.
BibliographicReferences:
Australian HeritageCouncil 2010.West KimberleyPlaceReport. Downloaded on 14 June
2012 from
Berndt R. andBerndt C. 1954.Arnhem land, its historyand its people. Melbourne: F.W. Cheshire.