8.1.1.1
Chinese society: part 1
Social Classes and Groups
SUMMARY
The overwhelming majority of the population of China consisted of the peasantry, who along with artisans, stood at the bottom of Chinese society and formed the exploited classes in China. At the top there were the landowning aristocracies, military oligarchy and the scholar-gentry. Besides these, there were merchants who, though affluent, got a low rank in the social hierarchy. The ideology of Confucius and the value system he advocated bound the feudal society of China.
The basic unit of the Chinese society was the family. Patriarchy was all pervasive in the Chinese family. This domination of age was matched by the domination of men over women. In the family, a woman had no rights whatsoever. They were universally illiterate.
The peasantry was not an undifferentiated class, but spit up into rich, middle, poor and landless. Most of them were under the grip of landowners who subjected them to exploitation of various types. The town-dwelling artisans were organized into guilds which controlled production and marketing in each professional sector. The merchants were at the bottom of the social scale. The term ‘shen-shih’ or scholar gentry refers to those who had passed the governmental examinations. They played a dominant role in society and enjoyed many privileges. They possessed power, knowledge and land. Although stratified, Chinese society was egalitarian in that there was no caste system like in India and the ladder to success was available to everyone, regardless of family, birth or religion.
OBJECTIVE
The student will:
Learn about the social structure in pre-modern China
Know the privileged position of the scholar gentry
Understand the impact of Confucianism on China
GLOSSARY
Confucianism –The concepts of the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius (c.551-479BCE); held that each one in society must play his/her role according to fixed norms of ethics and integrity; emphasized the ideals of righteousness, loyalty, respect and benevolence.
Sung dynasty (960-1279) - A dynasty that followed the Tang dynasty and was founded by Chao Kuang-yin, known to history as Tai Tsu; followed by the Yuan (1271-1368) dynasty.
Ming dynasty (1368-1644) – Founded by Chu Yuan-chang who proclaimed himself the Ming Emperor and made Nanking his capital; consisted of seventeen rulers who were able to control the whole of China and perfect an efficient political, military and economic structure.
Ching/Manchu dynasty (1644-1912) – The dynasty that ruled China after overthrowing the Ming dynasty and witnessed the zenith and nadir of the traditional Chinese state; started with the reign of emperor Shun-chih.
Government examination –A system managed by the Ministry of Rites, through which the bureaucracy of China was selected; involved three levels and a curriculum based on Confucian classics and elaborate writing skills; candidates who qualified were permitted entry to the scholar gentry class.
Shen-shih/scholar gentry - Individual degree holders who were given government posts; constituted the local elite who apart from their official duties took responsibility for public morals and maintenance of local Confucian temples and ceremonies and the general welfare of the area under their jurisdiction; formed a wealthy, propertied and influential class.
Magistrate – Degree holders from another province who were appointed in different areas; did not have much interest in local development as they were unaware of the requirements of such areas.
Walled towns – Fortified cities where the scholar gentry lived in order to protect themselves from the likelihood of the dangers of peasant rebellions.
Chinese peasantry – This class was split up into rich, middle, poor and landless.; most of them were under the grip of landowners who subjected them to exploitation of various types.
Chinese merchants – Composed of the wealthy monopolistic traders, small shopkeepers, clerks, apprentices, powerful tea and silk merchants; considered to be on the lower rung of society as commercial activities were regarded as beneath the dignity of the scholar-gentry, and the pursuit of profit was frowned upon by Confucian society.
FAQs
1. What was the nature of Chinese society in pre-modern China?
Chinese society was highly stratified. The farmers constituted eighty per cent of the population and lived in the rural areas. The other twenty per cent of the population, who lived in urban areas, represented a composite stratum of scholars, gentry, officials, artisans, merchants and soldiers. Though stratified the society was egalitarian in that there was no caste system and the ladder of success was open to everyone, regardless of family, birth or religion. Individual merit based on scholarship and the passing of the examinations formed the basis of recognition.
2. What was the structure of the family?
The basic unit of Chinese society was the family, which was headed by the father who had complete control over the other members and all decisions. The family ties were based on Confucian precepts of respect, filial loyalty and benevolence. Women had no property rights enjoyed no independence, and were expected to be obedient to their husbands. Widows were generally expected not to remarry, although the husband could take a concubine even if his wife was alive.
3. What was the attitude of society towards merchants?
Merchants were considered to be at the bottom of the social scale, however wealthy they might have been. Commercial activities were regarded as beneath the dignity of the scholar-gentry and the pursuit of profit was frowned upon by Confucian concepts.
4. Who were the scholar gentry?
The scholar gentry were those who had passed the government examinations and been awarded a bureaucratic post. They were wealthy and influential and enjoyed many unique privileges. They were distinguished from the commoners in style of dress and in embellishments. They were protected against insults from commoners and interference from officials. If a member of the gentry was involved in a legal suit he was not required to appear in person in court and could send his servant instead. They were exempt from manual service and excused from paying poll tax. They were the intermediary agents between the local magistrate and the people.
5. What was the nature of the duties performed by the scholar-gentry?
The gentry financed the construction and repair of public works like bridges, ferries, dikes, dams, irrigation systems and dredging of rivers. They also contributed to the upkeep of local temples and shrines and were involved in local charity and welfare. They also helped to solve civil disputes out of court. The gentry considered themselves guardians of the cultural heritage. Moreover in times of unrest and turmoil it was the gentry who organized local militias to protect the locality. The indeed constituted the most important single group in Chinese society.
6. What was the structure of the examination system?
The ability to compose the ‘eight-paragraphed’ or ‘eight legged’essay was essential to success in the examinations. This essay demonstrated a formal and rigid style of writing, requiring great literary skills but no profound knowledge. Successful examinees had to excel in rhyme and diction as well as in calligraphy and poetical expression. The examinations were conducted on the district, provincial and metropolitan levels. Extreme care was taken in the examination hall to avoid corruption. All papers written by the candidates were anonymous.
7. What was the final stage of the examination?
The emperor with the assistance of fourteen ranking officials took personal charge of the final stage of the examination. The examiners selected the best of the answer papers and the emperor indicated his preference and ranking of the candidates into three groups in order of merit with a vermilion brush.
8. What were the main concepts that constituted Confucianism?
Confucius was more interested in how society would benefit from a return to the ancient way rather than the supra-human realm. He felt that good government was fundamentally a matter of ethics, and that the ruler’s virtue and the contentment of the people, rather than power should be the measure of political success. The idea is expressed in the statement, “Let the ruler be a ruler, the subject a subject, let the father be a father and the son a son.” Confucius was China’s first great moralist and the founder of a great ethical tradition in a civilization which came to concentrate on ethical values.
9. How did Confucius respond to political needs of his age?
The bureaucracy that was emerging in China needed a political philosophy which Confucian ideas admirably supplied. Confucius never questioned the legitimacy of hereditary power. He also assumed that men of superior learning had the right to tell the rulers how they should conduct themselves and their government. He emphasized the need for rulers to be benevolent and to set a moral example before his subjects. The scholar gentry ensured that Confucianism remained the guiding principal of society and state. Confucian ideas however became a drawback when China needed to reform itself with modern reforms in the face of western infiltration.
10. What were the Confucian precepts relating to women?
. The rulers of China inherited the legacy of Confucius and formulated the “three obedience” and “four virtues”. The former required that a woman must obey the father when young, obey the husband when married, and obey sons when widowed. The “four virtues” were: A woman should possess the feudal moral ethics, her speech should conform to the feudal ethical code, her clothing should suit feudal customs and she should be able to do household chores and wait on parents-in-law, husband and sons.
QUIZ
- The Ming dynasty was overthrown by the
a)Mongols b) Tang dynasty c) Ching dynasty
2. The Ching dynasty started ruling China from
a) 1644 b) 1744 c) 1800
3. Those who passed the government examinations became
a) Kings b) Scholar-gentry c) Ambassadors
4. The ‘four virtues’ of Confucius related to the ideal conduct of
a) Women b) Kings c) Officials
5. Most of the people in pre-modern China were
a) Soldiers b) Artisans c) Peasants
6. Who took all the decisions in a Chinese family?
a) The grandmother b) The father c) The son
7. Bai Shouyi is the name of a
a) Historian b) Manchu ruler c) Korean ruler
8. Confucianism became the official doctrine of the Chinese state during the rule of the
a) Ming dynasty b) Ching dynasty c) Han dynasty
9. The gentry acted as the intermediary between the people and the
a) Merchants b) Magistrates c) Confucian teachers
10. The gentry mainly lived in
a) Villages b) Palaces c) Walled towns
ASSIGNMENT
- What were the features of pre-modern society in China?
- How did Confucian ideals influence Chinese state and society?
- Evaluate the position of the scholar gentry in China.
- Why is Chinese society called a stratified society?
- Why is China sometimes termed a ‘gentry state’?