Chapter 2
Constructivism
Chapter Overview
Classrooms are by their nature inherently social places where children and youth form much of their identity and learn about social norms. According to constructivist theory, it is that social interaction that creates learning, motivation and behavior. Taking advantage social interaction to help students develop belonging, mastery, independence and generosity, can enhance motivation, engagement, achievement and prosocial behavior. Learners themselves are the experts with regard to their school experiences. Gaining their perspective allows teachers to understand what learners may need to be engaged, motivated, socially appropriate and socially responsible.
Chapter Outline
Constructivism
I. Introduction
II. Social Constructivism
III. Circle of Courage
A. Belonging
1. Belonging and attachment
2. Belonging in school
3. Fostering belonging
B. Mastery
1. Mastery and Motivation
2. Mastery and Achievement Behavior
3. Developing Competencies
a) Mastery Experiences
b) Vicarious Experiences
c) Social Persuasion
d) Emotional and physiological state
e) Stereotype threat
f) Goal structure of the classroom
4. Perceptions of Competence over time
2. Illusions of incompetence
C. Independence
1. Benefits of independence
2. Practices that support independence
D. Generosity
1. Opportunities for generosity
2. Developing generosity
IV. The Circle of Courage and the power of Social Interaction
A. Communicate Belonging
B. Communicate Mastery
C. Communicate Independence
D. Communicate Generosity
V. Constructivism and the power of perspective
VI. Research Based Practices
Discussion questions from text
1. What role do prior knowledge and experience play in the learning process?
2. What role does social interaction play in the classroom?
3. Describe the four areas of the circle of courage.
4. In what ways are belonging, generosity, independence and mastery interconnected?
5. Why are generosity, mastery, belonging and independence important to learning?
6. How do students develop a sense of mastery?
7. How can teachers assist students in avoiding an illusion of incompetence?
8. How can independence be encouraged in the classroom?
9. How can teachers communicate generosity, belonging, independence and generosity?
10. What benefits are there to gaining the perspective of students?
Additional discussion questions
1. Think about a time when you didn't belong, didn't feel successful, didn't have anything to contribute or had no
control. What was that like, what feelings did it evoke? Do you avoid or seek those types of situations. Now think of students with regard to those attributes, what is school like for them?
2. What are current school practices that either encourage or discourage belonging, generosity and mastery and
independence?
3. Think about a time when your input was sought, considered and incorporated in a plan in your home, school or
community. How did that experience influence your sense of commitment or involvement?
4. Do today’s school students have ample time for quality social interaction? How can teachers take advantage of
social interaction in the classroom to improve classroom climate?
5. In your reflective journal, consider the dimensions of teaching discussed in chapter one teacher centered vs
Learner, proactive vs reactive, teacher as technician vs professional, authoritarian vs democratic and autonomy supportive. For each dimension, consider the constructivist perspective and where a constructivist teacher aligns for each dimension.
Extension activities
1. Create an informational flyer, brochure or PowerPoint for an in-service or other type of product that you could
share with other teachers. The purpose of the product is to promote practices that foster belonging, generosity,
competence and independence. Interview a classroom teacher with regard to his/her practices that support
independence belonging, generosity, competence and independence
2. If you are in a classroom, ask a colleague to observe you and look for practices that either encourage or
discourage belonging, generosity, competence and independence. If you are a prospective teacher, observe a
classroom teacher, look for evidence of practices that support belonging, generosity, competence and
independence.
3. Create a chart or poster with three columns with the following headings Looks like, sounds like, feels like. Under each heading, write what a constructivist classroom would what you would see in a constructivist classroom, what you hear and what the atmosphere would be like.
4. If you are teaching in a classroom, apply one of the research based strategies presented in figure in 2.2 in the text, evaluate and reflect on that practice with regard to its effect on classroom climate and learning.
5. If you are a prospective teacher, observe a teacher who uses one of the practices mentioned in figure 2.2 consider and discuss how that practice effects classroom climate and learning.
6. In your journal, reflect on the constructivist perspective. Consider how it fits with your view of teaching. Write
about practices that you incorporate or would like to incorporate in your classroom that fit with this perspective and encourage belonging, generosity, independence and mastery.
Multiple choice test questions
1. According to constructivist theory learners construct their own understanding of the world through
a. Responses that are either rewarded or punished
b. Presentations of new information by significant adults
c. Interactions with others, prior learning and experience play
d. All the above
2. The four central values of the Circle of Courage are
a. Belonging, mastery, generosity and independence
b. Dependence, obedience, respect and responsibility
c. Autonomy, initiative, respect and motivation
d. Altruism, rigor, belonging and autonomy
3. Research has shown that strong school attachment influences which of the following.
a. Academic achievement
b. Risk for behaviors such as drug abuse and early sexual activity
c. Engagement in aggression and delinquency
d. All of the above
4. According to Osterman, the current emphasis on standardized tests results in
a. An emphasis on individualism and competition over community and collaboration
b. An emphasis on belonging and community
c. An emphasis on positive student teacher relationships
d. An emphasis on positive school affiliations
5. According to Blum, which of the following contribute to belonging in school.
a. Clear rules, rewards, consequences and teacher centered practices
b. Proactive classroom management, authoritarian discipline, clear rules and consistent consequences
c. Learner centered practices, positive classroom management, authoritarian discipline and clear rules and
consequences
d. Positive peer relationships, student centered practices, positive classroom management and gaining student
perspective
6. According to research, learners with a low sense of self-efficacy
a. Exhibit less self regulation, more negative attitudes and less class participation
b. Are most likely to come from low-income and single parent homes
c. Are motivated for higher achievement
d. Compensate with higher levels of self regulation
7. Victor makes excuses for his lack of achievement and effort by saying thinks like “I didn’t really try, I don’t care if I fail this class”. These self-handicapping behaviors may indicate
a. A lack of ability
b. A lack of altruism
c. A low sense of efficacy and avoidance of appearing incompetent
d. Disrespect for the teacher
8. In classrooms where competition, grades and achievement relative to peers are emphasized,
a. Students may adopt lower self-efficacy beliefs
b. Students are likely to have increased sense of self-efficacy
c. Students are likely to have increased intrinsic motivation
d. Students are likely to adopt an illusion of competence
9. According to research by Aronson, students who are aware of negative stereotypes may
a. Experience anxiety in testing situations
b. Have a diminished sense of self efficacy
c. Fear that their performance may reinforce the stereotype
d. All of the above
10. According to Reeve and Jang (2006) practices that can support autonomy include
a. Criticizing students
b. Using praise to control behavior
c. Giving meaningful choices
d. None of the above
11. According to Vansteenkiste, Lens and Deci (2006) the advantages of strategies that nurture autonomy include
a. Decreased drop out,
b. Deeper learning,
c. Greater creativity and less superficial information processing,
d. All of the above
True/false test questions
1. ____ Students who experience rejection and isolation in school are less likely to conform to school rules.
2. ____ School attachment and motivation tend to increase during middle school years.
3. ____ According to most theories of motivation, a sense of competence is an important factor in human behavior
4. ____ Students’ perceptions of competence remain the same year to year
5. ____ Students’ perceptions of competence tend to be specific to subjects they are studying.
6. ____ Learners who lack information or are uncertain about their ability with regard to certain activities, may
develop their self-efficacy perceptions based on observations of classmates
7. ____ Social persuasion has little influence on one’s sense of efficacy
8. ____ In classrooms where competition, grades and achievement relative to peers are emphasized, students may adopt lower self-efficacy beliefs
9. ____ According to research, teachers are generally good judges of student’s sense of efficacy.
10. ____ According to research, enhancing autonomy can lead to higher achievement and enhanced wellbeing
11. ____ Motivational strategies that rely on rewards and punishments can negatively affect autonomy.
12. ____ According to Mueller, Youth who volunteer are less likely to engage in risky behavior.
Matching
A. Close relationships with peers and adults at school / ___Procedural autonomyB. Low self efficacy with no apparent deficits or disabilities / ___Self handicapping behaviors
C. Allowing student choices about how to use instructional materials / ___Illusion of incompetence
D. Beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments / ___Cognitive autonomy
E. Making excuses and acting like grades don’t matter / ___School attachment
F. Engaging students in self evaluation and reflection / ___Self-efficacy
Chapter 2 - Answer Key
Multiple Choice:
1. c
2. a
3. d
4. a
5. d
6. a
7. c
8. a
9. d
10. c
11. d
True/False:
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. True
6. True
7. False
8. True
9. False
10. True
11. True
12. True
Matching:
A. School attachment
B. Illusion of incompetence
C. Procedural autonomy
D. Self-efficacy
E. Self handicapping behaviors
F. Cognitive autonomy