CURRICULUM

Testing Hints for this subject area:

On FELE, answer as if you were the principal of a school. Good choices to use when answering Curriculum questions may include:

  • Shared decision making
  • Site based management
  • Community awareness and involvement
  • Technology
  • Computer literacy with science curriculum
  • Needs assessment tools
  • New demographics in an area (i.e. new factory)

Look for key words on the FELE, such as, best choice, most obvious, etc.

Key Definitions Relative to Curriculum:

  1. Vertical planning - planning from one grade to another in one subject
  2. Horizontal planning - integration of curriculum using several different means to teach the curriculum (whole language)
  3. Spiral curriculum - continuity from grade to next grade (ex. Regrouping in addition) “Everyday Math” is an example of a spiral curriculum. For more information go to the following web site:
  4. Sequence - in which order should build to another, more in-depth curriculum
  5. Integrated subjects -whole language NO! This is not what it means.
  6. Scope and sequence - refers to the organization of the curriculum in a continuum.
  7. Classroom climate - concerned with rapport among room members and does impact curriculum Ex.: Materials are available; communication must take place, institutional dimensions (teacher's teaching area, such as, a computer class should be held in a computer lab).
  8. Plan book - used to record the following information that MUST be included:

1.Subject

2.Text, page, resource materials

3.Objectives

4.Assignments in class

  1. Curriculum -

1.A pattern of studies

2.Under the supervision of the school

3.The state dictates what to teach

4.It is democratic - involves learner input

5.Must be appropriate, specific, and measurable

6.Continuance of sequence must be coherent and understandable by the people

7.Must be specific with goals

8.Teachers are merely facilitators

  1. 10.Epistemological curriculum - based on nature of knowledge rather than nature of learning
  2. 11.Humanistic curriculum - based on need, social expectations, and the ability or stages of the learner
  3. 12.Mainstreaming – refers to the inclusion of the handicapped student into the educational process.
  4. 13.Magnet Schools – (i.e. performing arts, science/engineering) These specialized schools provide students with choices regarding curriculum.
  5. 14.Content Source – determined by state and local school boards, parents, administrators, students, teachers, and publishers.
  6. 15.Whole Language – refers to the integration of the language processes, including reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
  7. 16.Thematic Approach – curriculum is designed around a specific theme. All subject areas are taught using the same theme.
  8. 17.Portfolio - used to collect work of a given student. Evaluation of the student is an on-going process.
  9. 18.Cooperative Learning – refers to groups that are formed to work together to complete a specific task. The group creates one specific product cooperatively.
  10. 19.Non-graded Schools – no grades are given to students.
  11. 20.Open Education – includes a rich learning environment that includes concrete materials, no bells or schedules, and encourages students to develop self-reliance.
  12. 21.Team-teaching – uses teacher strengths, teacher s plan together extensively, etc.
  13. 22.School-based Curriculum – based upon the needs of students in the school. The students, teachers, and parents have more active roles in the development of the curriculum.
  14. 23.Blueprint 2000 – State Legislative initiative focusing upon educational goals and objectives.

Curriculum Theorists and Reformers

Ralph Tyler:Known as the father of curriculum. He was very student-oriented. He believed that curriculum came from three different sources:

  1. 1.Society - ideas, community, expectations
  2. 2.Students and learners
  3. 3.Subject matter (scope and sequence)

Once curriculum comes from the above sources, they must be filtered through “screens”. According to Tyler, these screens include:

  • Philosophical screen
  • Psychological screen – How do kids learn best?
  • Experimental screen – Determine what worked before and try new ideas.
  • Stakeholders screen – Includes the society in which we live.

Hilda Taba:A student of Tyler. She was not necessarily a supporter of Tyler. She proposed that curriculum development start at the teacher level. She believed that teachers should be agents of change.She believed that students could be led toward making generalizations through concept development and concept attainment strategies. Taba believes that the purpose of education involves:

  1. 1.Socialization - get along in society
  2. 2.Achievement
  3. 3.Personal growth
  4. 4.Social change

Mauritz Johnson – This curriculum theorist believed that curriculum is a destination and not the process of getting there. In his schema for curriculum,Mauritz Johnson provides one of the most elegant and powerful models for classifying information relative to both curriculum and instruction.

  1. 1.A curriculum is a structured series of intended learning outcomes
  2. 2.Selection is an essential aspect of curriculum formulation.
  3. 3.Structure is an essential characteristic of curriculum.
  4. 4.Curriculum guides instruction.
  5. 5.Curriculum evaluation involves validation of both selection and structure.
  6. 6.Curriculum is the criterion for instructional evaluation

Jerome Bruner – He was considered an educational reformer of the sciences. He believed that curriculum should deal with the subject matter relating to life skills. Bruner encouraged teachers to “bring the world into the classroom”.

John Goodlad – He was known for his work with reorganizing junior and senior high schools into “houses” (combined grade levels). Each “house” has its own curriculum. H is remembered for his five levels of curriculum.

  1. 1.Ideal curriculum – recommended by society.
  2. 2.Formal curriculum – approved by the state.
  3. 3.Perceived curriculum – teacher interpretation
  4. 4.Operational curriculum – actual
  5. 5.Experimental curriculum – what students derive from the operational curriculum

Ernest Boyer – He supported that the “love of learning” added to the enjoyment of life.

Mortimer Adler – He proposed a course of study for students to provide for “tracking” of individual progress. He stressed three types of learning: knowledge, skills, and understanding.

John McNeil – identified four major categories of the prevailing curriculum

  1. 1.Humanists – believe that the function of the curriculum is to provide each learner with internal rewards and personal development. (Carl Rogers has documented that students learn more, are more creative and attend class more often when the humanist’s curriculum is implemented.)
  2. 2.Social Reconstructionists – believe that the function of the curriculum is to confront the learner with the problems of mankind.
  3. 3.Technologists – believe that the function of the curriculum is to find an efficient and effective way to impart knowledge.
  4. 4.Academians – believe that the function of the curriculum is to develop the mind and to train students to do research.

Other Reformers:

George Beauchamp -

Theodore Sizer –

Curriculum is a set of courses constituting an area of specialization. Curriculum development is mandated by each state to the local districts. A needs assessment should be conducted prior to designing a curriculum. A needs assessment is the process by which educational needs and priorities are defined. The four steps of a needs assessment include:

  1. 1.Developing goal statements
  2. 2.Assigning a priority to the goal statement
  3. 3.Defining acceptable behavior of the student in reference to the goal.
  4. 4.Designing a program to reach the selected goal.

Curriculum planners using curriculum determinants make curriculum decisions. Decisions regarding curriculum are made at various levels: national, state, local systems, schools, and individual classrooms.

Curriculum Determinants:

  • Pupils
  • Social values, structures, demands of the community
  • Functions and aims of the school
  • Nature of knowledge
  • Process of learning
  • Economics and resources
  • Existing facilities
  • Philosophies and religions of the community
  • Needs of students
  • Court decisions (i.e. Segregation)

Curriculum Planners:

1.Professional educators at various operational levels (teachers, administrators, college level professors)

2.Political agents (They bring in the money).

3.Parents and pupils

4.Learning theorists and researchers

5.Economists (How much will it cost to raise Johnny's reading level?).

6.Members of the community

7.Big businesses (Career Education)

8.Religious leaders

Curriculum Decisions:

1.Characteristics of a good curriculum (State won't fund unless agreeable).

2.Organization and selection of curriculum content (state adoption)

3.Organization of instructional grouping (state inferences, ex. Speech Therapy student)

Curriculum decisions result in curriculum plans:

1.Plans for learning opportunity provided by the school

2.Instructional Plans

3.Learning resources

4.Grouping

Curriculum should be decided by:

  • Needs of child (DATA!!!)
  • Societal expectations (7 Cardinal Principles): The Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education issued the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education in 1918. The focus of this commission was to form objectives for secondary education. It was decided that segmented subjects and their subject matter were a way to achieve the decided goals but that they were not the one and only way.
  • 1.Health
  • 2.Command of fundamental processes (read, write, figure, etc.)
  • 3.Worthwhile home memberships
  • 4.Vocation
  • 5.Civic education
  • 6.Worthy use of leisure time
  • 7.Ethical character

The Bases for Curriculum Planning (Kerney):

1.Physical development, health, and body care

2.Individual social and emotional development

3.Ethical behavior, standards, and values

4.Social relations

5.The social world

6.The physical world

7.Esthetic development

8.Quantitative relationship

Elements for Successful Learning Programs:

1.Textbooks

2.Visual aids

3.Media materials

4.Characteristics of people using materials

5.Strengths and limitations of school building

Elements NOT Useful in Curriculum:

1.Special interest groups

2.Political pressures

3.Personal preferences

4.Traditions of school

Contemporary Philosophies in the Classroom:

Pragmatism - values are never fixed but always changing. Pupil interest is central in teaching. (Dewey)

Existentialism - mainly concerned with two factors in the human predicament: (A.S. Neal)

  • Individual freedom
  • Death

Idealism - A fixed reality is to be found in the cultural heritage and in the application of reason. (Havinghurst, Rickover)

Realism - reality simply IS, WAS, and ALWAYS WILL BE. (Skinner, Piaget, Erikson, Thorndike, Bruner)

EVALUATION

Observation – includes evaluation using anecdotal records, interviews, conversations, retellings, audiotapes, oral presentations, dramatic plays, portfolios, writing journals, etc.

Measurement – includes evaluation using inventories, checklists, teacher-made tests, cloze exercises, dictations, holistic writing assessments, standardized achievement tests, etc.

Styles of evaluation:

  • Internal: comes from within the individual who is learning.
  • External: comes from sources or people other than the learner.
  • Public: completed openly as in front of a group or class.
  • Private: completed on a one-to-one basis.
  • Informal: considered to be subjective.
  • Formal: considered an objective process.
  • Formative: determines the degree of mastery of a given learning task.
  • Summative: used at the end of a course, or a term.
  • Diagnostic: carried out while instruction is under way and determines a learner’s strengths and weaknesses.

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Review Bloom's Taxonomy:

  • Evaluation: making judgments about the value of the material
  • Synthesis: putting together elements or parts to form a whole.
  • Analysis: breaking down of a communication into its various parts.
  • Application: ability to use abstractions in concrete situations.
  • Comprehension: lowest level of understanding
  • Knowledge: ability to recognize or recall information

Affective Domains of Learning

  • Characterizations
  • Organization
  • Valuing
  • Responding
  • Receiving

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:

  • Need for self-actualization
  • Self esteem needs
  • Belongingness and love needs
  • Safety
  • Physiological needs

Jean Piaget’s Four Stages of Development

  1. Sensori-motor stage (usually occurs before age 2)
  2. Pre-operational stage (usually occurs between ages 2 – 6)
  3. Operational stage (usually occurs between ages 7 – 11)
  4. Formal stage (usually occurs between ages 12 – 15)

THE MARKS OF A GOOD CURRICULUM

Source: Curriculum Planning for ModernSchools, J. Galen Saylor & William M. Alexander; Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

I.A good curriculum is systematically planned and evaluated

A.A definite organization is responsible for coordinating, planning and evaluation.

B.Steps in planning and evaluation are logically defined and taken.

C.Ways of working utilize the contributions of all concerned.

II.A good curriculum reflects adequately the aims of the school

A.The faculty has defined comprehensive educational aims.

B.The scope of the curriculum includes areas related to all stated aims.

C.Each curriculum opportunity is planned with reference to one or more aims.

D.In planning curriculum opportunities from year to year and in each area, teachers consider the total scope of aims.

III.A good curriculum maintains balance among all aims of the school

  1. A.The curriculum gives attention to each aim commensurate with its importance.
  2. B.The total plan of curriculum opportunities in basic areas, school activities, and special interests reflects careful planning with respect to all aims.
  3. C.Guidance of each individual helps provide him a program that is well balanced in terms of his needs and capacities.
  4. D.The school organization, schedule, and facilities help in given appropriate attention to aim.
  5. E.Classroom activities and schedules are arranged so as to provide a balance program of varied learning activities.

IV.A good curriculum promote continuity of experience

  1. A.Provisions are made for the smooth transition and continuingachievement of pupils from one classroom, grade, or school to another.
  2. B.Curriculum plans in areas that extend over several years are developed vertically.
  3. C.Classroom practices give attention to the maturity and learning problems of each pupil.
  4. D.Cooperative planning and teaching provide for exchange of information about pupils' learning experiences.

V.A good curriculum arranges learning opportunities flexibly for adaptation to particular situations and individuals

  1. A.Curriculum guides encourage teachers to make their own plans for specific learning situations.
  2. B.Cooperative teaching and planning utilize many opportunities as they arise to share learning resources and special talents.
  3. C.Time allotments and schedules are modified as need justifies.
  4. D.In accordance with their maturities, pupils participate in the planning of learning experiences.
  5. E.The selection of learning experiences reflects careful preplanning by teachers and equally careful attention to the demands of the learning situation.

VI.A good curriculum utilizes the most effective learning experiences and resources available

A.Learning experiences are developed so that pupils see purpose, meaning, and significance in each activity.

B.Needed, available resources are utilized at the time they are relevant and helpful.

C.Use of the right learning resource for each pupil is encouraged.

D.Teachers discriminate wisely between activities that pupils carry on independently and those in which teacher-pupil interaction is desirable.

VII.A good curriculum makes maximum provision for the development of each learner

  1. A.The program provides a wide range of opportunities for individuals of varying abilities, needs, and interests.
  2. B.Extensive arrangements are made for the educational diagnosis of individual learners.
  3. C.Self-directed, independent study is encouraged wherever possible and advisable.
  4. D.Self-motivation and self-evaluation are stimulated and emphasized throughout the learning opportunities of the school.
  5. E.The curriculum promotes individual development rather than conformity to some hypothetical standard.
  6. F.The school attempts to follow up its former students both as a service to them and for evaluative date.

Professional Learning Communities: Schools with an emphasis on learning as opposed to teaching who embrace PLC’s are characterized by an emphasis upon the following guiding principles:

  • Shared Mission, Vision, Values and Goals
  • Collective Inquiry
  • Collaborative Teams
  • Action Orientation / Experimentation
  • Continuous Improvement
  • Results Orientation

Standards Based Curriculum - Standards-Based Curriculum means that:

  • Expectations for learning are high for ALL students and developmentally appropriate.
  • Standards guide all classroom decisions
  • The focus is always on student learning
  • Effective instructional practices result in higher levels of achievement for all students.
  • Assessment outcomes are used to inform the teacher about the effectiveness of curricular and instructional decisions.

SunshineState Standards –The Sunshine State Standards are the centerpiece of a reform effort in Florida to align curriculum, instruction and assessment. They identify what students should know and be able to do to for 21st century and are thus both content standards and performance standards.

Grade Level Expectations - The Grade Level Expectations statements will be new or more specific statements, when appropriate, of what students need to know and be able to do at each grade level to achieve the grade-cluster benchmark and ultimately the exit standard.

FCAT and High Stakes Testing – The Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) is part of Florida's effort to improve the teaching and learning of higher educational standards. The primary purpose of the FCAT is to assess student achievement of the high-order cognitive skills represented in the Sunshine State Standards (SSS) in Reading, Writing, Mathematics, and Science.

Data-Driven Instruction - is a curriculum design framework that allows teachers, parents, students and administrators an opportunity to see student expectations for each grade level. With this approach, it is possible to track student progress, identify needs, and provide focused instruction and interventions. The framework four major components:

  • Curriculum alignment: What are we going to teach?
  • Curriculum mapping: When are we going to teach it?
  • Curriculum benchmarking: Did students learn it?
  • Differentiation: What teaching methods would be best for each student?

For a PowerPoint presentation regarding the use of data coaches, please see the following web site:

Portfolio Assessments - A portfolio is not a random collection of observations or student products; it is systematic in that the observations that are noted and the student products that are included relate to major instructional goals.

Classroom Assessments – Rick Stiggins has been committed to helping teachers gather accurate information about student achievement and use that information to benefit (not just grade and sort) their students. The most unique part of his vision is the need to involve students deeply in the classroom assessment process to build their confidence and maximize their achievement.

Webb’s Depth of Knowledge – Cognitive Complexity Classification

Cognitive complexity refers to the cognitive demand related with an item. The state of Florida has embraced Bloom’s Taxonomy1 since the origin of FCAT in determining the cognitive complexity level of questions. Recently, the state changed this measurement tool from Bloom’s Taxonomy to Dr. Norman L. Webb’s work with “Depth of Knowledge”2 levels, which currently serves as FCAT Cognitive Complexity Model. Webb’s model consists of 4 levels; but has been tailored to report three levels for FCAT: Low Complexity, Moderate Complexity and High Complexity. The State of Florida will no longer report test results using the Bloom’s Taxonomy Model for FCAT.