Chapter 25 Outline – The Consolidation of Latin America, 1830-1920

V. The Modern Era, 1750-1914

  1. The Consolidation of Latin America, 1830-1920
  1. From Colonies to Nations

-Elite class in Latin America (American born whites and Creoles) led push for independence

  • The masses (majority of people) soon sided with these elites and wanted independence
  1. Causes of Political Changes

-Other independence movements inspired and influenced Latin America

  • American Revolution (1776-1783) – model of how colonies could break from mother country
  • French Revolution (1789) – idea of liberty, fraternity, and equality popular in Latin America;
  • Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) – Slave revolt led by Toussaint L’Overtureled to independence (Haiti became symbol of freedom in Latin America, though Creole elites did not want to gain independence in same way b/c they wanted to remain atop social class ladder
  • Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal – Spain in crisis, colonies able to break away
  1. Spanish American Independence Struggles

-Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821

  • Creole leader, Father Miguel de Hidalgo, got support of Indians and mestizos, and led rebellion
  • Other Creoles, reluctant at first to ally with the lower classes, eventually decided to ally with Hidalgo’s forces, and in 1821 Mexico gained independence from Spain
  • Mexican Revolution = conservative movement (Mexico became a monarchy (for a short time) and existing social classes remained the same, which the Creoles desired)

-In Central and the northern part of South America, independence movements were also taking place

  • Simon Bolivar = Led independence movement in Venezuela
  • Between 1817 and 1822, Bolivar won independence for Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador

-Southern part of South America also gained independence in the early 1800s

  • Jose de San Martin= Led independence movement in Argentina, and soon helped others gain independence, such as Chile
  • Portenos = Residents of Buenos Aires, Argentina, which had become booming commercial center; they resented Spain’s rules that they could only trade with Spain

-By 1820s, all of Spanish South America gained independence - each became a republic with representative governments born out of Enlightenment and liberal ideas

  1. Brazilian Independence

-Brazil’s independence occurred at same time as others in Latin America, but in a much different way

  • Napoleon’s invasion of Portugal (1807) led Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil, set up capital in Rio de Janeiro, and elevate Brazil to equal status as Portugal
  • Royal family opened Brazil’s ports - could now trade with other nations, and economy soared

-In 1820, the king returned to Portugal and left his son, Pedro, as regent in Brazil (regent = someone who rules on behalf of the king)

  • Based on events in Portugal, it appeared Brazil would be forced to return to status of colony
  • 1822 - Pedro declared Brazilian independence, became known as emperor Dom Pedro I
  • Brazil able to break from Portugal with very little fighting necessary
  • Unlike other newly independent Latin American nations, Brazil wasn’t a republic but a monarchy
  1. New Nations Confront Old and New Problems

-By 1830, Latin America had broken away from Spain and Portugal and become independent

  • The new nations had much in common: belief in representative government

-Not much agreement on religious freedom and role of church

  • Roman Catholicism state religion under Spanish rule
  • Conservatives wanted to maintain it, liberals wanted to allow freedom

-Early leaders, like Bolivar, had egalitarian ideals

  • By 1854, slavery ended except in Brazil
  • Despite promises, Indians still paid tribute and were left out of the political process, and mixed races paid taxes (new governments needed the revenue)
  1. Political Fragmentation

-Early independence leaders wanted to unite large regions of Latin America, but it proved too difficult

  • Gran Colombia = failed attempt by Simon Bolivar to unite northern part of South America
  • Rio de la Plata = failed attempt by Jose de San Martin to unite southern part of South America

-Attempts to unite Latin America failed b/c of geographic barriers and large distances between regions

  1. Caudillos, Politics, and the Church

-The new independent nations of Latin America had problems centralizing rule over their entire nation

  • Caudillos = independent regional leaders who had great power

-Political leaders became divided into Conservatives and Liberals

  • Conservatives = Centralists (wanted strong central governments), wanted to maintain heightened role of the church, wanted to maintain social structures (keep social classes as they were)
  • Liberals = Federalists (wanted strong regional governments and weaker central government), wanted to allow freedom of religion and other individual rights

-For the first 50 years of independence, most Latin American governments were in constant turmoil

  1. Latin American Economies and World Markets, 1820-1870

-In 1820s, conservative governments, which had been restored in Europe (Congress of Vienna), were considering recolonizing Latin America

  • Monroe Doctrine (1823) = U.S. warned European nations not to recolonize Western Hemisphere; was successful because British navy supported the policy (following Latin American independence, Britain had become the greatest commercial power in the region, and wanted to keep it that way)
  1. Mid-Century Stagnation

-From 1820-1850, economy of Latin America was stagnant, but after 1850 things started to improve

  • As Europe’s economy expanded, there was more of a demand for Latin American products
  • Major exports = coffee (Brazil), beef (Argentina), and minerals and grains (Chile)
  • The money from selling these products allowed Latin American governments to address social issues (ex: Peru was able to end long-standing system of Indians paying tribute)
  • New technology, such as steamships and railroads, were introduced, helping the economy
  • But, Latin American economies relied on exporting raw materials, and were thus vulnerable to changes in the world economy (ex: price of coffee in Europe goes down, Latin America suffers)
  1. Economic Resurgence and Liberal Politics

-After 1850, liberals came to power in much of Latin America, and as the economies improved, it allowed these leaders to make social changes, which they modeled after Europe and America

  • Positivism = French philosophy of using scientific approach to solve social problems, it was adopted by many of the liberal leaders of Latin America who tried to improve social conditions

-Late 1800s saw a 2nd industrial revolution

  • Second Industrial Revolution (beginning around 1870) helped Latin American economy as demand for copper and rubber from Latin America grew (not just wheat, sugar, and coffee)
  • The improved economies meant there was more money available for liberal leaders to make social improvements (ex: improve education)
  1. Mexico: Instability and Foreign Intervention

-Throughout 1800s, Mexico had political turmoil as conservatives and liberals fought for power

  • Mexico had brief monarchy (1821-1824) but then became republic
  • Constitution in 1824, ended monarchy and made Mexico a republic
  • Although new Mexican constitution guaranteed civil rights, many problems still existed (uneven distribution of land , poor status of Indians, and poor education)

-Mexico’s instability and financial difficulties made it a target for foreign invasion

  • Mexican-American War (1846-1848) = War began after U.S. annexed Texas, which had broken from Mexico 10 years earlier
  • Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) = U.S. acquired almost half of Mexican territory
  • The war gave Mexicans sense of nationalism (they fought well against superior American army)

-General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, who was conservative leader of Mexico during war with U.S., was soon overthrown by liberals, who came to power

  • Benito Juarez = Indian who replaced Santa Anna and was a liberal leader of Mexico
  • who believed in secular society (end to Church influence) and end army which would help economy
  • La Reforma(1854) = New liberal Mexican constitution which ended Church privileges (Church land put up for sale so the poor could have chance to own land at cheap price; unfortunately, wealthy people able to buy up much of the land, so problem remained)

-Conservatives, led by the Roman Catholic Church, opposed the La Reforma and its liberal reforms

  • Civil war occurred (conservatives v. liberals), and conservatives were losing, so they turned to France for help (France ended up getting control of Mexico and placing a European, Maximilian von Habsburg, took the throne of Mexico)
  • Eventually the liberals rebelled, captured and executed Maximilian, and brought Juarez back as leader (though he died a short time later)

By 1880, Porfirio Diaz emerged as leader of Mexico, and ruled like a dictator

  1. Argentina: The Port and the Nation

-Argentina, with its rolling plains (called pampas) was a backwater of the Spanish colonies until the 1700s, when trade stimulated the economy

  • Earlier attempts to unite southern part of South America (Rio de la Plata) had been unsuccessful, and port city of Buenos Aires emerged as the dominant city in the region
  • Buenos Aires ruled by liberals, and who began major reforms (ex: improved education)
  • Public land was sold, and the land was used to help the cattle ranching industry (gauchos)
  • Like in Mexico, the Church opposed liberal reforms, including freedom of religion

-Liberals won in Argentina, and even wrote a new constitution in 1862 which unified the nation and led to period of prosperity and growth under liberal leaders

  • With political stability came foreign countries willing to invest, and the Argentine government had more revenue to introduce reforms in education, transportation, and other areas
  1. The Brazilian Empire

-Despite being a monarchy and having some political stability in the 1800s, Brazil still faced many of the problems of other Latin American nations

  • Brazil became a nation relatively easily, so many institutions remained the same – slavery, large landholdings, and an export economy
  • Brazilians wanted a weak, limited monarchy, but Don Pedro I was an autocrat, and in 1831 he was forced to abdicate throne
  • His son, Pedro II, became monarch, but he was too young so regents ruled in his place, and the regents ruled Brazil more like it was a republic than a monarchy

-Much political turmoil existed in Brazil in the 1830s

  • Liberals fought conservatives, and monarchists fought antimonarchists
  • Brazil had highly centralized government (centered in Rio de Janeiro), which upset the provinces

-Like rest of Latin America, Brazil’s economy expanded greatly after 1850

  • Fazendas = coffee estates in Brazil (by 1880 coffee made up 60% of Brazil’s exports)
  • With the growing of coffee came the growing use of slavery, and while Brazil agreed to stop importing slaves in 1850, under pressure from G.B., slavery did not end until 1888 (huge numbers of immigrants were moving to Brazil, providing labor and lessening need for slaves)
  • Railroads, steamships, and telegraph improved communication and transportation
  • Foreign countries invested in Brazil
  • Merchants, lawyers, a middle class, and urban workers were emerging in Brazil, and landowners and old elites not as important, which was catalyst for change

-After a war with Paraguay (1865-1870), the monarchy, and Dom Pedro II, began to lose popularity

  • In 1889 a near bloodless military coup removed the emperor and established a republic under military men influenced by positivism (scientific approach to help cure societal problems)

-Progress came at a cost to Latin American nations

  • Economic problems for peasants led to rebellions (some also against secularizing of society)
  • Canudos = community of peasants who rebelled against new government in Brazil, and were violently suppressed
  1. Societies in Search of Themselves
  1. Cultural Expression After Independence

-After colonial rule over, many Europeans traveled to Latin America, introducing new ideas

  • The elites in Latin America were the ones who adopted much of the European culture
  • Neoclassical style, modeled after classic Greek and Rome, which was popular in Europe at the time, became popular among Latin American elites)

-1830s onward, Latin American artists turned to romanticism, and used local customs

  • Novels sympathetic to Indians appeared, and writers even wrote of political corruption and greed
  • Popular arts, folk music, and dance flourished (though not amongst the elites, who preferred modeling after Europe)
  1. Old Patterns of Gender, Class, and Race

-Despite political changes in Latin America, women gained very little (still viewed as housewives)

  • Women could not vote, hold public office, or become lawyers
  • Before marriage, women were under authority of father, and after marriage, of their husband
  • Lower-class women often had more personal freedom than elite women

-Only significant gains for women came in education

  • Rise of secular public education gave women new opportunities and many became teachers
  • Many of the women educated began getting involved in advocating for women’s rights

-After independence, Latin American nations ended legal systems that discriminated based on color and ethnicity, but in reality much of that system remained

  1. The Great Boom, 1880-1920

-Latin America had economic expansion from 1880-1920

  • Liberal reforms like open markets and limited government intervention aided economic growth
  • Large landowners, merchants, and small urban middle class benefitted, while peasants and the working classes lost out
  • Demand and prices for Latin American exports soared, and Latin American nations were able to afford large amounts of foreign goods to beautify and improve cities and government projects
  • But Latin American economy based on exports, so at the mercy of the world market
  • Argentine economy grew the most from trade (sold wool, beef, grain)

-Foreign nations sought to invest in the growing Latin American economies

  • Foreign investments helped Latin American countries with needed capital and services, but industries, and transportation facilities were in foreign hands
  1. Mexico and Argentina: Examples of Economic Transformation

-Mexican economy grew largely as the result of foreign investment

  • When Porfirio Diaz took power in 1876, he set up a strong centralized government which encouraged foreign investment (allowed industries to grow and railroads to be built)
  • Cientificos = advisors of Diaz who encouraged foreign investment

-Economic growth came at expense of rural peasants and growing urban and working classes

  • Strikes and labor unrest increased, and national police force had to maintain order
  • Diaz ruled like a dictator, and rigged elections and had political opponents arrested
  • Mexican Revolution (1910 – 1920) = bloody civil war with rebels seeking political reforms

-Argentina’s economic expansion much different than Mexico

  • Cattle industry grew very wealthy
  • Buenos Aires continued to grow, becoming known as the “Paris of South America”
  • Growing economy allowed liberal leaders to improve country

-Technological changes helped Argentina’s economy to grow

  • Refrigerated ships allowed meat to be shipped to Europe (wool and wheat other major exports)
  • Many immigrants came to Argentina (same as Brazil) which provided needed labor
  • Unlike Mexico, which had few immigrants, Argentina was Europeanized, and the cultures fused
  • Fusing of cultures led to radical workers’ movements, but also music of the tango

-In early 1900s, socialist party and anarchists gained momentum, and while positive reforms were made (secret ballot, universal male suffrage), many workers strikes and unrest occurred

  1. Uncle Sam Goes South

-U.S. got more involved in Latin America following the American Civil War (1861-1865)

  • U.S. investment was largely based in Mexico and Central America
  • American industries wanted raw materials and new markets

-The Spanish-American War (1898) was a turning point for U.S. relations in Latin America

  • Cuban had launched war for independence vs. Spain beginning in 1868
  • Eventually U.S. entered war against Spain

-U.S. had invested heavily in Cuba by 1898 and was a major importer of Cuban sugar

  • U.S. won war and got more directly involved in Latin America
  • Cuba eventually given independence by U.S., but U.S. could intervene any time
  • U.S. gained Puerto Rico in the war, and it remained property of U.S.

-Americans became even more attracted to Latin America in the early 1900s for economic reasons

  • Panama Canal (1908) = U.S. supported Panamain revolt against Colombia in order to build canal
  • Panama Canal was remarkable feat and showed technological and industrial strength of U.S.
  • Many Latin American leaders feared U.S. expansion (also against materialistic culture of U.S.)

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