SOCIALANTHROPOLOGYOFTHECITY1

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1.Introduction

1.Thefollowingaresomeofthemajorsociologicaltheorieswhichhaveconditionedurbanstudiesduringthiscentury.

2.Urbanismisthelifestyleofacity,thevaluesoftheurbanites.Urbanizationistheprocessofurbangrowth.

3.TheearlymajortheoriesofurbanismareproductsoftheChicagoSchool,thatreflecttheexperienceof

"Americancities. StudyofThirdWorldcitiesisproducingquitedifferentmodels.

"4.BothUrbanSociologyandUrbanAnthropologyfeedintourbanstudies

A. “Sociology”: thestudyofsocieties,traditionally,thestudyofcivilized

populations,normallyalargepopulationsample

B. “Anthropology: thestudyofcultures,traditionally,thestudyofprimitivepopulations,relyingonfewerinformantswithdeeperrelations.

C. Thedifferenceismoreonmethodologyofdatacollection:SociologyAnthropology

GroupandsocialorganizationCulture

Behavior(What?)Cognition(Why?)

Macro(Examiningfromthebalcony)Micro(Interactinginthestreet)WesternSociety ComparativebetweenSocieties/

1CulturesQuantitativeapproach(Statistics) Qualitative(Narrativeethnographies)Questionnaires Participant-Observation

Describes“Laboratory”and“Life”Describesprimarily“Life”Detachedobservation Involvement

“Etic”---CategorizedfromOutside“Emic”----CategorizedfromWithin

"ExaminesSpecificcharacteristicsTriestoexaminethewhole

KeyQuestion: Areyoujournaling,detailingyourobservationwhereyouare?Whatare

younotingthatservesasanthropologicaldata? i.e.WhatareyourobservationsaboutcasteinIndia? WhatistheroleofthebarangayinManila?Whatistherelationshipbetweeneconomics"andchurchaffiliationintheUSA?

II.SignificantEarlySociologists

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A. KarlMarx(1818-1883): ForMarx,theprimarymovingforceinsocietyandtheCity

Wastheeconomic-politicalcomponent

1.1Tonna,Benjamin

1982GospelfortheCities,Orbis.AtextbookonconnectingUrbanSociologyandmission.

Economic/PoliticaldrivesSocialOrganizationalChangewhichdrives

BeliefSystems

B.EmilDurkeim(1858-1917):Consideredthe“Father”ofFrenchsociology. Sawthecityasasocialorganizationoutofwhichitseconomicandideologicaldevelopmentandstructurewerederived.

SocialOrganizationdrivesEconomicSystemicChangewhichdrives

BeliefSystems

C. MaxWeber(1864-1920): Positedthatmind-setwasthemotordrivingtheCity fromwhichsocialorganizationalchangeandeconomicstructuralchangeoccur.

WeberwouldsaythattheCityisamind-set;ideologycausespeopletobehavethewaytheydo. Changesinbelief,overtimechangesocialorganization.TheChurchisshapedbyitstheology,anditstheologyshapessociety. CasestudyofCalvinisminNorthernEurope;andWesleyanisminEngland.

D. TheInfluenceofCalvinism,accordingtoWeber:

1.Newideasallowforindividualism,activityandvaluingwork,certaintyof“election”

2. Newpersonalitynowvaluedasentrepreneurism,delayedgratification

3. Newvaluessuchasindustry,frugality,punctuality,justice,honesty,fairness

4. Thesearethebasictenetsofmodernindustrialcapitalism.E. TheEvolutionoftheConceptofWealth

1. Initially: Goodswereexchangedforgoods

2. Feudal:GoodswereexchangedforCashwhichpurchasedGoods

3. Capitalism: Cashbuysgoodswhichgeneratemorecash

4. Banking:Cashbegetscashwhichbegetscash

5. Future: Cashleveragespowerandinfluence

F.Onceonehasmoney,then...

1. Medieval: Stopworkingandrelatetoothers

2. Protestant: Workmoreandsaveyourmoney

3. Wesley: Workallyoucan,saveallyoucan,giveallyoucan

4. Modern:Workmoreandspenditonyourself

5. Today: Spenditbeforeyouearnit,thenworkharderandlongertopayforit.

Question: Whatistherelationshipbetweeneconomicsandreligiousorientation?Dowechangeideasfirst,oreconomics,orsocialcontext?

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2. HistoricalUrbanAnalyses-MumfordandSjoberg

Wehavealreadyconsideredthehistoricalanalysesofthecity.GideonSjobergbuiltoffthemajorstudybyMumfordindevelopingthesetheories2

3. OrganicTheory-RobertPark3

Parkwastrainedasajournalist,andhisinitialinterestincitiesgrewfromfirsthandexperiencereportinginthem.AfterstudyundertheGermansociologistGeorgeSimmel,Parkmovedto

theUniversityofChicagoin1914,wherehetaughtintheDepartmentofSociology.DrawingontheinsightsofDarwin,Parkdrewanalogiesbetweenplantcommunitiesandhumancommunities.Hisideaswerefirstpromotedina1916article:'TheCity-SuggestionsforInvestigationofHumanBehaviourintheUrbanEnvironment'.SometimecalledtheOrganicModelofthecity,Park'sanalysisdrewonextensivestudyofdifferentgroupswithinthecity.

Histheoryfocusedontheinteractionbetweenhumansandtheirenvironment,comparingthis

"totheevolutionaryprocessintheworldofplants.

i. Competition

Aswithplantspecies,peopleinthecitycompeteforlimitedspaceandaccesstothemost

desirablelocationforresidenceandbusiness.Suchcompetitionismarkedbylandvalues,

whichsorturbandwellersintoseparatetypesoccupyingspecificareas.Theslumrepresents"theareaofminimumchoice;thatwhichisleftover.Competitionthusleadstosegregation.ii. Dominance

Withindifferentvarietiesofplantsgrowinginonearea,acertainspecieswillexertadominantinfluenceinthatitcontrolstheenvironmentalconditionswhichencourageordiscourageotherspecies.Inthecityasawhole,theCentralBusinessDistrictwillplaysuchadominatingrole.

"Inlocalareasofthecity,certainactivitieswilldominatetheenvironment.

iii. InvasionandSuccession

Plantschangethemicro-environmentinwhichtheylive,andinsodoingmakeitpossiblefor

otherlesstolerantspeciestothriveunderthenewconditions.Parkappliedthisconceptto

urbancommunities,notingthewayinwhichanethnicareacouldbeinvadedbypeoplefroma

"differentethnicgroupwhowouldeventuallyestablishdominance.

Park'sworkwasseminal,andestablishedtheChicagoSchool'ofurbansociology,whichhas

"itselfbeendominantinthefieldformostofthiscentury.

4. TheOriginalTheoryofUrbanism-LewisWorth

2.2Mumford,Lewis

1969 TheCityinHistory,ItsOrigins,ItsTransformations,andItsProspects,NewYork:Harcourt,BraceWorld.

1.Sjoberg,Gideon

1966“TheRural-UrbanDimension”inHandbookofModernSociology,RobertLFaris,ed

1.3Park,R.E.

1952HumanCommunities,Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Alatersummaryofhiswork.

WirthwroteUrbanismasaWayofLife(1938)aimingtogiveaconcisetheoryofurbanlifewhichwouldexpressthediscoveriesoftheChicagosociologistsduringtheprevious20yearsas

a"universalmodelofthecity.

Thethreemajorfactorswhichaffectthesignificantdemographyofthecity,accordingto

Wirth,are:(i)largesize(ii)highdensity(iii)heterogeneity.Incombinationthesethree

"conditionsgiverisetothatwayoflifewhichweknowasurbanism.

i.PsychologicalEffect

WirthhadalsostudiedunderGeorgeSimmel,andwasinfluencedbySimmel'sclaimthatcity

lifeischaracterisedbytheintensificationofmentalstimulation.AccordingtoWirth,thecity

dwellerisassaultedbyprofuseandvariedstimuli.Ahostofdifferentsensorystimulicompete

forattentionanddemandresponsefromtheurbanite.Inordertosurviveinthisenvironment,

peopleadaptandfindmechanismsforfiltering.Theybecomealoof,brusque,andimpersonal

intheirdealingswithothers,seekingtogainsomedistancefromthedemandsmadeupon

them.Butstillthepsychicoverloadcreatedbyover-stimulationtakesitstollintermsofstress

andpsychologicalstrain.TimCostellousesthephrasetheretractablepsyche:

Thispersonalitytraitpermitstheurbanitetowalkalongacitystreetpassinghundredsofpeopleandbehaveasiftheywerenotthere.Suchaprotectiveblindnessisnotbecauseofhurrysincethesamethingwillhappeninacrowdedliftoronatrainwhereforhalfanhourtheymightstandwithsomeone'selbowintheirearwithoutsomuchasacknowledgingthem.Thereisaconstantpsychicdrainofrecognisingstrangersanddispatchingtheemotionalenergytoconservemeansthaturbanreserveisreallyasubconscioussurvivalmechanism.4

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Afurtherconsequenceisthattheadaptivedistancingofpeopleleavesthemunsupported,

manysufferloneliness,andinbadcasesphysicaldeteriorationandmentalillness.According

toWirth,urbanestrangementallowspeopletoweavefantasiescreatingtheconditionsforbothc"reativityandcriminaldepravity.

EgonMayerspeaksofthepost-modernperiodasbeingdescribedbysomeleadingtheoristsasonemarkedbygrowingautonomyofmajorinstitutions,placingthemnotonlybeyondmoralconstraintsthatdevelopoutofasharedvaluesystem,butalsobeyonddirectmanipulationby

i"ndividuals.

ii.LifestyleProducedbyBrokenSocialStructure

Theurbanprocessesofcompetition,comparativeadvantage,andspecialisationleadtoahigh

degreeofcommunitydifferentiation.Thiscanbeseeninanumberofdifferentfacetsofcity

life:thedivisionoflabour,thediversityoflocales,thedifferingsocialcircles.Inthecity

peoplemoveinandoutofvariousplaces,activities,andgroupsofpeople.Thisinturn

producesaweakeningofsocialties.Onthebroadlevelsmallprimarygroupsofsocietysuchas

family,friendsandneighbourshavetheirtiesweakened.Peopleworkandplayoutsidetheir

familynetwork,andsothefamilyislesscohesive.Citydwellerstraveloutsidetheir

neighbourhoodforworkandrecreation,andsoneighboursbecomelesssignificant.Through

"theseprocessessocialbondingisweakened.

Theconsequenceisanomie(normlessness,alienation,anarchy),asocialconditioninwhich

societalnormsaffectingbehaviourandlifestyleareseverelyeroded.Peopledon'tagreeabout

thenorms,andtendtochallengeorignorethem.Inturnurbanitiesareunrestrainedbysocial

rulesofsanctions,andarefreetocommitallsortsofacts,fromthebizarretothecriminal.So

thatordercanbemaintainedinthecity,impersonalagenciesareemployed-thisWirth

describesas'formalintegration'.Thussocialorderisrestoredandchaosavoided.However,

1.4Costello,Tim,ed.

2.1991MinistryinanUrbanWorld,Melbourne:AcornPress,p7

3.5Mayer,Egon

1979FromSuburbtoShtetl:theJewsofBoroPark.Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,p16.

thisisneverassuccessfulasthesocialcohesioncreatedbystrongbondsamongsmallprimaryg"roups.

TheseideaswerefurtherdevelopedbyRobertRedfield,acolleagueofWirth,whodevelopedapolarmodel-folksocietyasagainsturbanism.Whereurbansocietyisimpersonal,heterogenousandsecular,folksocietyispeaceful,wellintegratedandcomparativelyfreeof

"strife.Thecitywasincreasinglyperceivedasnegative,therurallifeasidyllic.

5.PeasantsinCities

OscarLewis,ananthropologist,reactedtothisdefinitionbystudyingmigrantsintoMexicoCityanddeniedthateverydaylifeinthecityislargelytheproductofurbanism.Thevillagerskepttheirreligioustiesandfamilialtiesinthemigration.

"Sociallifeisnotamassphenomenon.Itoccursforthemostpartinsmallgroups,withinthefamily,withinneighbourhoods,withinthechurch,formalandinformalgroupsandsoon.Consequently,thevariablesofnumber,densityandheterogeneityarenotcrucialdeterminantsofsociallifeorpersonality".

Miner6studyingTimbuktu,andBascom7studyingtheYorubaofWesternNigeriaalsodidnotfindt"hetraitshypothesizedbyWirth.

i.SocialWorlds

Lewis,RotenbergandHannerzhavearguedthattheprimarysocialgroupsisnotthecityasa

whole,butsmallerintimatecirclesbasedonkinship,ethnicity,neighbourhood,occupation,

lifestyle,orsimilarfactors.Thesesocialgroupsoftenformphysicalenclavessuchas

Chinatown,KRoad,RemueraBowlingClub.Suchsmallsocialunitsarenotdestroyedby

urbanism,butratherformthebasicplaceofbelongingwithinthecity.Theyinsulateand

protecttheirmembersfromtheoverwhelmingvarietyoftheurbancontext.Socialworldsare

toalargeextentunaffectedbyurbanism,anddemonstratesimilarcharacteristicswhen

"locatedinaruralsetting.

ii.SocialDynamics

Formativefactorsforpeopleinacityarenotprimarilythoseofsize,density,and

heterogeneity,accordingtothesewriters.Ratherthedynamicsofsociallifearecontrolledby

socio-economicclass,culture,andstageinthelifecycle.Thusthebroadstrokesofany

person'ssocialpositioncanbedeterminedbytheiroccupationandwealth,theirethnic

backgroundandculture,andtheirmaritalandfamilystatus.Itiseasilyseenthatthesefactors

arerelativelyindependentofthesizeofthecommunity.Allurbancontextisrelevantonly

insofarasitaffectsthesocialcategories.Forexample,largecitiesmayprovidebetter-paying

jobs,orattractmoreimmigrantmaleworkersthanfemales.Itwillinturnaffectthesocial

worldsofthatparticularcity,buttheeffectsofcitiesontheindividualareindirectratherthand"irect.

Gulickintegratestheseopposingpolesintoaschemataexaminingdisconnectedness,minimalc"onnectednessandconnectedness(Gulick1989).

6.Sub-culturalTheory-ClaudeFischer

AmiddlewaybetweentheseviewsissuggestedbyClaude(ToDwellAmongFriends:1982).Heagreesthaturbanismhasadirecteffectonsociallife,butnotbydestroyingsocialworlds.Ratheritcreatesandstrengthensthem. HerbertGans(TheUrbanVillagers)describedan

"Italian-AmericanneighbouhoodinBostonasan“urbanvillage”.

4.6Miner,Horace

1953ThePrimitiveCityofTimbuctoo.PrincetonNJ:PrincetoneUniversityPress.

5.7Bascom,William

1955UrbanisationAmongtheYoruba.AmericanJournalofSociology.60:446-454

i.Subcultures

Thesinglemostimportantsocialeffectifthegrowthinsizeofagivencommunityisthe

promotionofdiversesubcultures.Subculturaltheoryidentifiessocialsolidarity,sociablilityand

mutualassistanceasfactorsthatenablesmallsocialworldsnotonlysurvivebutflourishinthe

urbansetting. Streetkids,punks,yuppiesandpsychpatientsareallexamplesofsubcultures

whichprovidethebasiccommunityforgroupsofurbanresidents.Suchworldsareoccupiedby

peoplewhosharedistinctivetraits,interactprimarilywitheachother,andhavearelativelyd"istinctsetofbeliefsandbehaviour.

ii.TheShapeofNewCommunities

Subculturaltheoryseesanimportantroleoftheurbanenvironmentinshapingnew

subcultures.Ascommunitiesgrowinsize,theybegintocreatenewsubcultures,modify

existingones,andpromotecontactbetweenthem.Integralinthisistheemergenceof

networks(asetoflinksbetweenindividualsorgroups)andassociations-newtypesof

"community. Thusthecityoffersenormousopportunityforcommunity.

Largecommunitiesattractmigrantsfromwiderareasthandosmallertowns.Thesemigrants

haveawidevarietyofculturalandsocialbackgrounds,andsoprovideforadiversesetof

socialworlds.Thebiggerthecity,themoredifferentiationandspecialisationtakesplace.

Structuraldifferentiationprovidesthebasisfornewsubcultures,basedaroundoccupationors"pecialinterest.

Oncethelooseboundariesofanewsubculturehavebeenformed,theurbanenvironmentactstoconsolidateandintensifythegrouping.Aconceptofcriticalmassisusedtoexplainthedevelopmentofsubcultures.Asocialgroupneedsacertainnumberofmemberstoallowittogrowfromasmallinterestgrouptoaviableandactivesubculture.Whenthegroupreachessuchacriticalmass,itcansupportclubs,newsletters,services,functionsetc.Ifthereisoneinevery1,000peopleinterestedinmoderndance,asmalltownof5,000willhavefiveenthusiasts.Acityofonemillion,ontheotherhand,willhaveasubcultureof1,000such

"people;enoughtosupportstudios,clubsandperformances.

Intensificationofsubculturescanresultfrominteractionbetweenthem.Whenthereis

negativecontactbetweendifferentsubcultures,acommonreactionistopillorytheother

group,andtowithdrawwithinthesafeboundariesof'peoplelikeus'.Itactstomake

subculturesstrongerandmoreself-reliant.Sometimesaparticularsubcultureissanctionedby

thewholeofsociety(homosexuals,criminals),andthisservestofurtherstrengthentheir

bonding.SubculturaltheorythusacceptsLewis’argumentthatsmallsocialgroupsformthe

primaryenvironmentforindividuals,butmodifiesitbyagreeingwithWirththatsuchsocial

groupsorsubculturesaredirectlyaffectedbythesize,densityandheterogeneityofanygiven

community.

7.Rural-UrbanCultureChange

Oneapproachmentionedabovetoviewingtheemergenceofformsofurbanculturehasbeenthecontrastingofpolartypesofsocietyandtheircharacteristics.Thefollowingtablesummarizesideasfrommultiplesources,particularlybuildingonOscarLewis’bipolarfolk-

u"rbancontinuum.

GideonSjobergdevelopedatheoryaboutthepreindustrialcityoveratenyearperiodseeking

todistilltheessentialelementsfrompreindustrialcitiesinEuropeandpartsofthethirdworld

today.NelsAnderson(1962)analyzedmodernindustrialsocietyasawholedemonstratingthe

drivingpoweroftechnologyinthedevelopmentoftheseurbanvalues.Thisissimilartothe

sociologistJacquesEllulinhisstudyof“Technique”(technicolgogy)asdeterminantofmodern"personhood.InalaterlecturewewillextendthisfromtheIndustrialcitytothepost-industrial.Morerecentanthropologicalstudieshavelookedatcitiesaspartofthelargersocio-economic

systemsinwhichtheyareembedded.JaneJacobspublishedontheeconomicsofinterrelatedcities(CitiesandtheWealthofNations).Othershavelookedatsuchrelationshipsfrom

Marxistcategories.Butgenerallysocialanthropologyhasbeenfocusedonstudiesofc"ommunitiesincities.

Youcanstudythefollowinginthe1960s:TheEmergenceofUrbanAnthropologists:Robert

"Kemper,Eames,ClaudeFisher,GeorgeFoster.

Theshiftinstudyofurbanismhasbeentopostmodernism,fromChicagototheLosAngeles

School(Dear,Soja).TheshiftinurbansociologyhasbeenintegratedintotheUNHabitatnetwork"s.

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THREEPOLARTY"PESOFSOCIETY

CHARACTER-VivGrigg,1990

"ISTICSTRIBALPEASANT/MULTIGROUP URBAN/INDUSTRIAL

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1.TECHHunter-gardeneragriculture,beginningofhightech/complex

CONCEPTSSubsistence/generalist specializationmultiplexroles

(Alldoeverytask)crafts,artisansagribusiness

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2.SOCIALStronggroup,kinshipstronggroupstrongindividualism

STRUCTUREClan,tribe,lineagemultiplegroupsgroupsare

functionalaggregatesshort-termcontractualrelationships

FamilyExtendedVarieswidelynuclear(old,sickexcluded)

DominantFather-sonparent-childhusband-wife

Diadspatron-workerfriend-friend

Mobilitypeasantsnotmobilesocial/geographicmobilityIntegration OrganizatnofHierarchy Heterogeneityandbetweengroups inlargerunitsalong Hostility/rivalry relativism

ethnic,familylinesbetweengroups

Lowestgroupoppressedandemulateselite

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3.ECONOMYSUBSISTENCEMARKETCOMMERCIAL

LandShared,groupownedtenantsonLord'slandindividualownershipEnergy Human,animal,tools human,animal fuel-poweredmachineGoods Few-groupuse manybyartisans vastnumber-formoney

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4.POLITICALMono-culturalinde-town/peasant,city-statenationalismandinterde-STRUCTURE pendentclangroups structuredliketribe pendentstates.Dominant Feudallord-servant corporation

Institutionpatron-client

LeadershipTribalcouncildominantrulinggroup"bigmen",dynamicleader

feudalbilevelstructure / networks,voluntaryassoc
eachgrouphasleadership / bureaucraticinstitution
Power / Weak / verygreat(lords) / dividedamongspecialists
Control / Shamewhennorms / freedom
(law) / violated / shame,gossip,civillaw / civil/criminallaw
Decision- / Mutualresponsibility / peasantslimitedrights / individualandpersonal
making / Groupdecisionmaking / lords / fullfreedom
Communi- / Upanddown / downwardsandhorizontal / literateandpostliterate
cation / Oralsocieties / withingroup / massmedia,public
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5.RELIGIOUS / ANIMISTIC / ANIMISM+NAT'L
RELIG'N MANYRELIGIONS
WORLD- / Uniform / Greattradition / secular
VIEW Smalltraditions / (integrateslocal) / pluralistic

6.8Frommultiplesources,Copyrite,VivGrigg,1986

ImportancePermeatesalllifeimportantunimportantPerceptionHighchurch/rituals bastionofright aggregateofindividualsofchurch dominant.Religionis inmidstofevil inachaoticworld

asmuchinritualasgodlessgroupsbigleaderswhoserveinconceptsstatements asanaggregatepoint

with

strongsenseright/wrong

WorldWorldisgoodworldisevil.worldischaoticourlittlecultureisgood notevil

TruthTruthiseternaltruthbelongstotruthisintenselyourgroup personal

GodHighconceptofGod

Sacred Traditionissacredgroupissacredsecularism

(grouprituals)

SinViolationofcosmicViolationofgroupnormsviolationofself

order(stressself-fulfilment)Ancestors Nurtured,placated respectedforgotten

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