International Scholarly Networks
Title
/Developing Academic Communities in a Context Where There is Tension between Relevance and Accountability
Name & Contact Information of author(s)
/ Kathleen DeMarrais, PhDUniversity of Georgia
850 College Station Road
Athens, GA 30602-4811
Ph: (706)
Fax: (706)
E-mail:
Anne Graham Cagney, Ph.D.
Waterford Institute of Technology
College Street Campus
Waterford
Ireland
Ph: +353 (51) 302476
E-mail:
Elizabeth M. PopeUniversity of Georgia
Rivers Crossing
850 College Station Road
Athens, GA 30602-4811
Co-Researchers, Phases 2-4:Paul Coughlan, PhD; Trinity College Dublin.
Gary Crites, PhD; DUKE University, USA.
Darlene DeMarie, PhD; University of South Florida, USA
Stream 8
/ Scholarly Practitioner Research / Learning and Teaching TrackSubmission Type
/Working Paper
Abstract
/ This study’s purpose is to design an international survey that will identify the key contributors and their networks; the development points; and the promising research collaboration opportunities that emerge from international scholarly networks. Questionnaires and interviews during the pilot will inform the research study on how to identify the role of scholarly networks (developed within the context of Fulbright Programs) in contributing and enhancing the relevance of academic research interests both to the academic community and to the practice community. The pilot study results will assist in exploring the impact of international scholarly networks on faculty core research, networked relationships, and interdisciplinary orientations.This project has received ‘New Foundations’ funding from the Irish Research Council.Key Words
/social networks, learning partnerships, communities of practice, networked relationships, inter-disciplinarity, research collaboration
Developing Academic Communities in a Context Where There is Tension between Relevance and Accountability
Education in general, and higher education in particular faces significant challenges in its role and relevance to society today (EUA, IUA, AAU). Key features of the necessary changes in this educational landscape include quality research training, interdisciplinarity, partnerships with industry, and a mentality of innovation. These requirements have implications for the professional development of faculty in higher education institutions (HEIs).
Heretofore, faculty members have determined the nature and extent of their professional development; most often driven by career progression ambitions and research interests. Pressure for change has meant that for most research active and research engaged faculty their projects and studies now take place within a context where there is tension between the rigour, relevance and accountability in their research publications and the needs of society in general. Going forward faculty professional development will involve their ability to maintain the relevance of their research interests to their academic community; and to the practice community. This will have implications for their core research, networked relationships, and inter-disciplinary orientations.
Analysis of social networks on international research communities identifies several important characteristics that have significance for this study. Santonen & Ritala (2014) argue these communities are usually found around several key authors who are well connected to other central scholars; secondly, there is a tendency to geographical or institutional clustering. Finally, well-connected actors perform better than less well connected ones. Other issues include the tendency to ‘homophily’ (particularly within scientific communities) with network members tending to recruit and work with those who mostly share similar perspectives (Vidgen et al, 2007; McPherson et al, 2001) also language and proximity play a key role in the successful development of scholarly networks. This study adopts an innovative approach by drawing from a population of academics who have been in receipt of a common scholarly award, rather than drawing on their disciplinary research communities.
Phase One of this research project explores how individual faculty members through their involvement in Fulbright Programs engage in professional learning and development through the use of learning partnerships, academic communities of practice and social networks. This paper offers a better understanding of how scholarly networks can support the social, personal and situational contexts of an evolving professional identity for faculty in HEIs.
Conceptual Framework
This study is informed by the following key interrelated concepts: the learning partnership model (LPM), transformative learning in particular perspective transformation, and the development of social networks. We describe each of these and their contributions to the study in the following sections. The frameworks underpin the core focus of this study of how people use Fulbright to create collaborations (perhaps interdisciplinary) and networks across international borders.
Baxter Magolda suggested that self-authorship is important to learning and describes it as “the capacity to internally define a coherent belief system and identity that coordinates engagement in mutual relations with the larger world” (Baxter Magolda in Baxter Magolda & King, 2004, p. xxii). This study will draw from Baxter Magolda & King’s (2004) Learning Partnership Model (LPM) core assumptions that knowledge is complex and socially constructed; that the self is central to knowledge construction and that authority and expertise are shared in the mutual construction of knowledge among peers. Additionally, the seminal work of Eraut (1994) in respect of how theory gets used in practice (i.e. that it rarely is taken off the shelf and applied without undergoing some transformation) will form part of the argument on the development of professional knowledge and competence. The findings of emergent research on lifelong professional learning will be combined with social network theory in the context of this study.
Transformative learning and in particular perspective transformation as a concept was developed in 1978 by Jack Mezirow. The concept was further developed in the 1980’s from results of a US Department of Education study on changes in role and self-concepts which Mezirow and Associates (2000: xii) call ‘perspective transformations’. The study will build on the conceptual framework of perspective transformation in the specific context of scholarly networks that provide professional development for faculty (Graham Cagney, 2011). Expectations are what one expects to happen based on what has happened in the past; they are the product of experiences. It is these expectations that are called into question in the transformative learning experience. Therefore, transformative learning is said to occur when individuals question assumptions based on prior experience and make changes in their thinking that lead to new worldviews, and new perspectives on their personal and professional lives (Cranton, 2006; Sands and Tennant, 2010). ‘When the right circumstances occur, transformative learning enables the individual to re-develop existing frames of reference (or points of view) that become more inclusive, discriminating, self-reflective and integrative of experience’ (Mezirow, 1997:5). This study will contribute to what is known about faculty experiences of perspective transformation in the specific context of the Fulbright social network that provides professional development for faculty in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs).
In order to solve complex problems, faculty research projects have to bring people with different yet complimentary skills together that require trans-disciplinary (Stokols, 2006; Pohl and Hirsch Hadorn, 2007) and cross-functional collaboration. Collaboration patterns differ among disciplines and countries (Santonen & Ritala, 2014). Therefore, social relationships and social networks are important in understanding how scientific communities and scholarly networks are formed and how they support collaborative research projects and initiatives. It is important to gain an understanding of the social structures and sub-structures, and what they can reveal about information flows, including across formal boundaries within and beyond institutions. Geographic proximity plays a key role, as do key scholars that are well connected to other central scholars. Other important considerations include motivation to collaborate, network position and the extent to which the actors (key authors, organisations and countries) are embedded in their network structures. All of the above appear to have an impact on the resulting activities, resources and outcomes of the network (Borgatti et al 2009; Kilduff and Brass, 2010). Therefore in academic communities it could be expected that individual scholars are most likely to collaborate in co-authoring with their existing rather than new networks.
Santonen and Ritala (2014) examined the impact of social network relationships on research collaboration and social/professional linkages. Their results indicate that certain authors occupy central positions in scholarly social networks. They find that those who combine and bridge major clusters and have co-authored a lot within their network will also have collaborated with a diverse network of co-authors. Face to face and ease of interaction is significant in developing the social network and it’s sub-structures. Therefore networks tend to be more institutionally and geographically clustered in nature. Santonen and Ritala (2014) suggest that international and interdisciplinary research collaborations lead to valuable learning opportunities and contributions.
In the context of this study, we will test their suggestion that a large amount of international collaboration encourages very useful dissemination of knowledge, capabilities and insights. We will also explore how to ensure the inclusion of new members outside the current community. As the context for this research study is an international scholarly network we will test the importance of international mechanisms or incentives from universities and scientific communities, together with international collaboration through Fulbright supported research exchanges and visits.
Related Literature
While there is a fairly extensive literature of personal narratives describing the experience of being a Fulbright scholar, there has been little empirical research on this experience and its impact on individual learning and professional growth and development or in building international networks for research collaborations.
Several articles included personal narratives embedded in empirical studies. Of those studies identified, a number reported the impact of learning on the Fulbright Scholar. For example, in a recent study, Opt (2014) reported the Fulbright experience taught participating scholars about teaching and research, but challenged their taken for granted ideas about their own culture. Participants in the study gained insights into their own culture, including their teaching methods and the U.S. educational system by experiencing differences in the host country. The study found the use of a cultural mentor helped to build relationships with colleagues in the host country. Similarly, Lal (2006) described feeling part of an exclusive Fulbright community with a unique opportunity to not only assist with the development of a pharmacy in the host country (China), but also to have gained professional experience in grant writing through the Fulbright experience. Jackson (1996) argued the importance of person-to-person encounters in the host country for learning everyday popular culture as well as for seeing the perspectives of others on one’s own culture.
Several of the articles reviewed reported the impact of the Fulbright experience on developing international scholarly networks. Watson (1995) reflected on the Fulbright award as an opportunity for personal growth and development, and an opportunity to work with international colleagues. Lentz (2011) recounted his experiences as a Fulbright Scholar in Zambia in addition to the results from his research study on HIV/AIDS. He particularly noted his ability to building relationships with Zambian scholars in addition to sharing his experiences with colleagues and students upon returning to the USA. In a narrative study, a collaboration of scholars in health disciplines described how the Fulbright experienced helped to shape their future career plans, problem-soling skills, and clinical practice. They reported either continuing the research they had started or set the groundwork for new research through the experiences.
We identified two survey studies reporting views of the impact of the Fulbright program at two distinct points in the history of the program. The first, a 1955 study by Mendelsohn and Orenstein reviewed the types of grants awarded, awardees, and prominent areas of study as well as the impact of the program on those awardees. At that time, the majority of grants were awarded for France and the UK with two-thirds for graduate study and one-third for teaching in education, language and literature, and the social sciences. Two thirds of the awards went to men. The study reported a development of research and teaching skills, opportunities for better jobs, and broadened professional contacts internationally. Decades later, Sunal & Sunal (1995) focused on the Fulbright experience in Africa with results indicating those Fulbright scholars involved were more male than female, on average 47 years old, and tenured full professors. The majority of those studied did not take their families with them. The study reported participants’ positive growth in international understanding, general career advancement, and more research on Africa, in addition to the development of professional contacts through their experiences. These participants also reported little value attributed to the award by the home institution.
In summary, while the literature points to increased cultural understandings, improved learning in teaching and research, the bulk of the work on the impact of the Fulbright Programs on faculty learning, faculty research, and the development of scholarly networks is largely absent from empirical literature. Much is in narrative form with just two more general surveys reporting perspectives of Fulbright awardees. With this overall lack of empirical attention on the Fulbright Program and its impact on scholars and scholarly networks, the purpose of this study is to examine the perspectives of Fulbright awardees on the impact of the experience on their learning and career development, their abilities to enhance an international scholarly network, and to engage in collaborations with this network for relevant interdisciplinary research.
Research Design
A mixed methods research design will be used to gain participants perspectives of the impact of their Fulbright experiences. We begin with both a questionnaire and in-depth qualitative interview design (deMarrais, 2004; Roulston, 20xx). This approach enabled us to focus on the following aims and objectives of the study.
The aim of the research study is to examine how faculty build scholarly relationships, collaborations, and networks through engagement in a Fulbright Program.
The objectives include:
- Identify the scholarly network structure including the linkages between key
contributors and their networks; the development points; and the promising research collaboration opportunities that emerge;
- Explore how academics use learning partnerships and scholarly networks;
- Identify the implications of scholarly networks for faculty core research, networked relationships, and inter-disciplinary orientations;
- Examine how faculty research interests develop and changes as a result of their international collaborations.
- Describe how individual faculty members experience perspective transformation through the social, personal and situational contexts of the scholarly network.
Research Project Phases
Phase 1: Pilot Study
This paper reports on the initial or start-up stage (Phase One) of the research study, beginning with this pilot study to identify key criteria to be considered and included in the development of a national survey for the USA and Ireland. On completion of the Irish/American study, we expect to expand the study to incorporate results from a European/Eurasian analysis of scholarly networks and how they are formed. As the context for this research study is an international scholarly network we will test the importance of international mechanisms or incentives from universities and scientific communities, together with international collaboration through research exchanges and visits.
Two questions guide the scope of this project
- How do the Fulbright Programs encourage scholarly networks? Who are the key contributors and their networks; the development points; and the promising research collaboration opportunities?
- How are an individual’s incentive, content and interaction dimensions of learning supported through the use of learning partnerships, academic communities of practice and social networks?
The Fulbright Experience, A Journey of a Different Kind
The Fulbright programme is a highly competitive, merit-based programme of grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists. Founded in 1946 by Senator J. William Fulbright (1904-1995), a U.S. Senator from Arkansas and Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee from 1959-1974. He dedicated his political career to the pursuit of international peace and developed an international educational exchange programme from his experience as a Rhodes Scholar. His vision was to promote the exchange of knowledge between nations that would lead to greater understanding and tolerance.
From its first overseas U.S. participants who took part in 1948, over 300,000 American and international “Fulbrighters” have benefitted from the program to date. Fulbright sponsors participants in all disciplines of study and is active in 155 countries worldwide.
Principally funded by the U.S. Congress through the U.S. Department of State and also by the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. Additional direct and indirect support is received from foreign governments and host institutions. CIES (Council for International Exchange of Scholars) of the Institute of International Education has administered the program for the past 60 years. The program aims to strengthen global peace by encouraging mutual understanding and education between the U.S. and the Fulbright partner countries.
UGA and Ireland Fulbright Scholars 2010-2015