Cultural Bias and Psychology
Psychology has often been criticised as being ethnocentric, that is displaying a bias towards our own ethnic or cultural group when defining what is ‘natural’ or ‘correct’ for everyone. Historically psychology has been dominated by white middle class males in the USA, and in the last century had a monopoly over not only the research but also the subjects. However the findings from these important pieces of psychological research have often been applied to people in general as if culture makes no difference. Cultural bias has become increasingly important as western cultures become more diverse. If psychological research does not take account of these factors then it will become irrelevant. An example of the problems with cultural bias has been highlighted in New Zealand (Lock 1993) where Maoris are 2 or 3 times more likely to be admitted to a psychiatric hospital as white New Zealanders. This is also the case in the UK where black West Indian Cultures are also more likely to be diagnosed as having a mental disorder than white people. Lock says this is directly due to inappropriate labelling through English based labels and treatments.
Other examples of this would be:
What is culture? Herskovits (1995) says that culture is the human made part of the environment. Whilst culture is made by humans it also makes humans so it has an interactive relationship with our behaviour. Although we often think of culture as being different across different nations, even within one culture there may be many subcultures. We can also consider cultural bias as being a form of historical bias. As our history changes so does our culture. What is relevant and reliable at one point in time in history may not longer be so (e.g.: conformity and obedience studies)
Examples of research which show this would be:
There are three major cultural syndromes used to compare and contrast different cultures:
Cultural complexity: - this is related to the numbers and complexity of the different roles that different members of the culture typically play. More advanced western cultures appear to have a more complex diversity.
Individualism v collectivism – refers to whether ones achievements are defined by ones personal choices and achievements or those of the group. Whilst many cultures often display both, the relative emphasis in the west is on the individual and in the east towards collectivism.
Examples of research which may be biased in favour of one of these terms might be:
Tight v loose cultures – tight cultures expect members to adhere to very strict social norms (Muslin or Taliban or even Japanese etc). Tight cultures do not tolerate deviation from those social norms.
The emic – etic distinction. Etics refers to culturally general concepts which are easier to understand because they are common to all cultures.
Emics refers to culturally specific concepts – so it is the emics of another culture that are difficult for us to understand.
An example of this would be…
The researcher brings with him his own ‘emic’. When he tries to use his own ‘emic’ and apply it to other cultures it is called ‘the imposed etic’.
Brislin (1993) gives the example of intelligence. The etic of solving problems is an example. In the west quick thinking is considered to show high intelligence and speed is a measure on an intelligence test. However in Uganda intelligence is associated with slow, careful, deliberate thought. Brislin also argues that quick thinking is not a valid emic for all school children in a culturally diverse country like the USA.
Some research has tried to research both cross cultural differences and universal similarities in behaviour:
An example of these would be:
Cross cultural research is useful in that:
- It highlights assumptions and helps us separate bias and show the extent to which cultural context affects behaviour.
- We are less likely to make errors when we look at other cultures as we are able to stand back and appreciate the impact of situational factors.
- It helps to extend the variables and concepts to be explored
- It helps test theories and establishes greater reliability.
Cultural bias and methodology:
It is difficult to compare similar studies carried out in different cultures as we cannot be sure of the following:
Translation
Operationalising of variables
Participants / sampling