SNV V4CP Inception report – October2016
Kenya Resilience – Context analysis

Context analysis 1. Introduction

The Drylands of Kenya make up 84% of Kenya’s total land surface, support about 25% of the country’s population (about 10 million people), account for more than 80% of the country’s eco-tourism interests and possibly up to 60% of the country’s livestock[1].The contribution of the sector to Kenya’s economy is often given as 12% of the country’s GDP and 42% of agricultural GDP (SNV, 2008). Besides, it is a significant source of foreign exchange and has strong linkages with the other activities of the economy[2].Nationally, 11.4% of household consumption expenditure is spent on livestock-derived food items. More than 80% of the beef consumed in Kenya is produced by pastoralists[3].

Pastoralism[4] is the livelihood and production system that has proved most adaptive to the extreme climatic uncertainty and marginal landscapes of the drylands, making the most sustainable economic and environmental use of these ecologically sensitive areas to support the lives and livelihoods of local populations (WISP, 2006). Pastoralists depend primarily on livestock and livestock products for food and income, grazing their animals on communallymanaged or open-access pastures, and using seasonal mobility as a means of managing access to water and pastures in the drylands. They manage their livestock, water, land and pasture using indigenous knowledge and mediated by traditional institutions that are also the custodians of their indigenous knowledge systems. Thus, pastoralism is a system with its norms and structures that enforce those norms. It is a traditional production system the sustainable operation of which long depended on traditional institutions of governance. The norms and their supportive institutional framework have evolved over time to become appropriate for the sustainable management of the drylands.

Indigenous knowledge plays a key role in the management of the rangelands resources including water and pasture, which are key reources for sustaining livestock based livelihoods. The custodians of such knowledge are indigenous institutions who mediate and enforce the norms rules and regulations tht govwern pastoral systems.

Pastoralism is directly dependent on a complex interplay between natural resources, vibrant management through proven localised institutions and livestock that have adapted itself to the enviroment. The three key pillars of pastoralism are natural resources, institutions and the herd which are all heavily impacted by seasonality pattern whose function is always thrown out of normal pattern by changing climate.

Pastoralist communities manage their rangeland by dividing the range into dry and wet grazing zones. They graze in dryer parts of the rangeland during rainy season and move to wet areas during the dry period, when they have exhausted the pasture and water resource. This nomadic movement has supported the pastoral survival for centuries but now their survival is at stake as climate change takes centre stage. Climate change in dryland areas manisfests itself in floodstorms and cyclic droughts which result in disruption of livelihoods through high livestock mortality which underminesthe adaptive capacity and resilience of communities in the drylands of Kenya.

2. Problem description

Appropriate policies are a key component of stabilising the livelihoods of pastoral systems especially those that are geared towards climate change mitigation. Policies that are well formulated and are adaptive to the needs of pastoral communities, incorporating indigenous knowledge and recognising the role of customary institutions will foster a robust business environment that supports businesses and investments in pastoral systems resulting in communitieswith enhanced ability to cope with climate change.The policy environment in Kenya is robust with Climate Change laws and institutional frameworks newly established to build economic, social and environmental resilienceof communities and individuals to climate change shocks. The policy frameworks are however devoid of a strong pastoralist agenda which leaves pastoralists and their mainstay livestock economic system vulnerable resulting in ineffective solutions forpastoralists’ resilience.

Strong representation(supported by evidence) for pastoralists in climate strategies and finacing platforms at national and county levels is lacking orweak in the following specific areas:

  • The National Climate Change Response Strategy 2010. The strategy is a commitment to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), to which Kenya is a signatory. Its principal focus is ensuring adaptation and mitigation measures are integrated in all government planning, budgeting and development objectives. The pastoralists’ issues are not well captured in the document and there is need for participation in its review.
  • CountyIntegrated Development Plans (CIDPs)
  • Draft Climate Smart Agricultural framework
  • The National Livestock Policy. The policy recognizes the potential of ASALs in livestock production, and proposes as one of its measures the promotion of sound range management practices and effective disease control
  • The CountyClimate Change legislations being developed (for example in Isiolo, Wajir and Makueni). This provides the communities with opportunities to put in customized plansfor improving their resilience
  • County livestock policies developed (as the case in Isiolo). This provides an opportunity to mainstream climate resilience issues in the policy formulation processes
  • County water policies and strategic plans

Civil society participation in the financial platforms and policy frameworks above from a position of knowledge and in a strategic manner will open legal avenues foreconomic, political, social and environmental issues affecting vulnerability of pastoralist communities to climate change to be addressed comprehensively.

3. Methodology

The main methods used to inform this context analysis include consultations with key actors in the climate change agenda- state and non-state actors at the County and National levels.Key collaborators were met both at county and national level (see annex 1). Additional sources of information were used including the internet resources[5]as well as reference to publications on co-management livestock market models and case studies by SNV. Government publications such as Policy and Legislative documents were also used, particularly those touching on Climate change such as the National Climate Change Response Strategy[6], The National Climate Change Action Plan[7], The Climate Change Act [8]and the Isiolo County Draft Disaster Risk Reduction Policy as well as the Isiolo County Livestock Sales Yard Draft Bill.

The Resilience Thematic Group Partners and SNV advisors also held consultative meetings to provide input to the Context Analysis.

4. Analysis current situation

4.1 Factors that influence the issue, its causes and the desired changes

The team applied the PESTEL model to analyse the current situation of pastoral systems. The tool critically considers the political, Economic, Social Technological Environmental, and LEGAL factors that affect pastoralists resielience. Table 1 below details an analysis of various factors affecting pastoralist resilience and the nature of influence.

Factor / Nature of influence
Political factors /
  • Lack of political goodwill with regard to pastoralists’ issues
  • Lack of adequate involvement of the Pastoral communities in the policy formulation process

Economic factors /
  • Inadequate market structures for livestock trade
  • Limited access to export market opportunities
  • Limited access to affordable credit facilities for livestock traders and producers
  • Inefficiency in the livestock marketing chain because of too many brokers and middlemen

Social factors /
  • Inter-community conflicts over limited resources (Pasture and Water)
  • Extra burden on women in caring for their families andsmall livestock in the face of limited water and pasture

Technological factors /
  • Lack of capacity to adopt new breeding technologies
  • Poor mobile network coverage in pastoral areas to support financial transactions
  • Poor livestock market prices as a result of the absence of a fully functional Livestock Market Information Management System

Environmental factors /
  • Floods increasing the spread of livestock diseases
  • Deforestation and degradation of land used by pastoralists

Legal factors /
  • Conflicting legislations within the sector

Politicalfactors

Historical policies such as the Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 [9]- African Socialism and its Application to Planning in Kenya identified pastoral areas as low potential and that government limited resources should be invested in high potential crop producing areas. This limited Government investment to pastoral regions affected development and their coping capacity to climate change.

In addition, due to the perception of uneconomical value of pastoralism, governments, investors and donors are sceptical about investing in Pastoralism. This has also led to coercion of pastoralists towards settlement in contrast to mobility. This is manifested, for instance, in increased investment in irrigation projects in and for pastoralist communities such as the Galana Kulalo Irrigation Scheme [10]in the predominantly pastoralist Tana River County. The loss of rangeland to irrigation schemes have reduced the pastoral grazing lands leading to conflict between the crop farmers and pastoralist.

Over the years government policies in relation to ASAL has improved also, the new constitution of Kenya adopted in 2010 has provided opportunities for devolution. There is visible increased representation of pastoralists in key political and public sectors and their voice in policy making processes is growing.

Economic factors

Due to the mobile nature of pastoralists and history of marginalisation and exclusion, there are inadequate market structures for livestock trade. It is just until recently that co-managed livestock markets have been set up in number of pastoralist counties with the support of civil society organisations and foreign missions. The model provides a management system which empowers communities to take part in the management of livestock markets in the county by working in partnership with local government. In counties where the model has been adopted (Marsabit and Isiolo), there has been improved market management which has attracted higher number of traders, increased market volume and revenueaccrued from livestock trade.

Despite concerted efforts to promote livestock trade and markets, the livestock producers and traders face limitations in accessing some regional and international markets and particularly in Europe due to low standard products – on the basis of these markets. There is therefore need to put in place legal frameworks, institutions, programmes to enhance quality and value addition to livestock products.

There is also inadequate investment by both the public and the private sectors in the livestock sector,mostly as a result of the misconception that pastoral farming is not economically viable and the lack of adequate information (reliable data on volume of livestock trade and consumption level per capita) on the economic value of livestock farming. Compared to cash crops such as coffee, horticulture, tea and more recently even khat, the livestock sector receives minimal financial support from both the government and private sector in terms of credit facilities offered.

Social factors

Incessant conflicts between pastoralists themselves, with neighbouring and with communities across the country borders (Somalia, South Sudan and Uganda) affects livestock trade and marketing. Insecurity as a result of these conflicts deters private sector investment in pastoralism.

It is unarguable that pastoralist women suffer disproportionately to the men as a result of climate change shocks. This is mainly due to their limited and sometimes lack of decision making authority and adequate resource to cushion them against these effects. The women role of household chores [11]are greatly affected by climate change for example water access, taking care of calves, kids and lambs. They have to find feed for young ones and are forced to travel long distance to harvest enough.

Technological factors

Despite the increased penetration as well as rising usage of technology and particularly smart phones in the Drylands of Kenya, there is still low uptake of appropriate technologies or innovations such as artificial insemination and innovative use of mobile information technologies that can increase productivity, improve income level and therefore enhance resilience. There are opportunities for the pastoralist to provide M-Pesa serviceespecially in livestock markets. Livestock traders handle cash in an area which is not very secure. The provision of financial services will attract more buyers from secondary and terminal markets. There is opportunity to use mobile apps to develop livestock market information which will promote livestock sales by providing livestock prices and other product prices thereby attracting traders and producers. The information on livestock prices can be an incentive for the pastoralist to sell livestock therefore reducing non-productive animals from their herds.Spatial mapping apps and early warning system could be integrated in support of traditional resource management system to enhance pastoralist resilience.

Environmental factors

Pastoralism leads to 14.5% 0f human-induced GHG emissions according to a FAO 2013 report [12] however a subsequent FAO 2015 report[13] with Scientists from Mazingira centre have found out that Tier 1 emission factors established by the intergovernmental panel on climate change ( IPCC) overestimate both methane and nitrous oxide emissions from cattle excreta, given typical smallholder practices in east Africa. While the pastoralists don’t contribute much to climate change they suffer from the effect of climate changes severely.

High degree of human interference in the ecosystem has increased the environmental change. Demand for energy is one of the main drivers of deforestation and land degradation in Kenya. Charcoal burning especially in urban centres has reduced the acacia trees which provide nutritious pads during the dry period in pastoral Counties. The ministry of energy report indicated that the final delivered biomass energy accounts for 78% [14]of all energy consumed in Kenya. (MOE, 2002)

According to draft veterinary policy (GOK 2015), disasters like drought and massive flooding displaces communities and contributes to the spread of vector-borne, contagious and infectious diseases like Foot and Mouth Disease, Rift Valley Fever, Nairobi Sheep Disease, Bluetongue and Lumpy Skin Disease. Drought and floods also lead to wind or water erosion of top soils and destabilize the range environment.

Legal factors

Conflicting legislations on livestock movement within and across counties hampers livestock trade, for instance the Finance Bills of Isiolo and its neighbouring counties charge different cess fees for livestock crossing their borders instead of a uniform fee, yet pastoralists from all these counties travel across their neighbouring counties regularly and equally. The sale yard bill under discussion at the moment will help to harmonize livestock trade in and across counties.

Gender

The Voice for change project will pay special attention to gender issues affecting pastoralist women in light of climate because of their vulnerability. Gender-poverty links show that 70 percent of the poor in the world are women. The dry and pastoral lands occupy more than 80 per cent of Kenya. The increased frequency of droughts witnessed in recent years has come with harmful consequences on pastoralists’ livestock and other assets. Furthermore, Women’s Environment and Development Organisation, WEDO (2007 cited in Dankelman et al., 2008:10) state that women, as the majority of the world’s poor, are the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Thus, during natural disasters, often more women die than men because they are not warned, cannot swim or cannot leave the house alone (Dankelman et al., 2008:10)[15]. When poor women lose their livelihoods, they slip deeper into poverty due to the increase in inequality and marginalisation they suffer from because of their gender. As a result, climate change presents a very specific threat to women’s security (Dankelman et al., 2008:10)[16].

4.2 Actors that influence the issue, its causes and the desired changes

Figure 1.Power matrix- Actors in pastoralist resilience

The figure above indicates the actors that this project will work with and their extent of influence and interest.Actors in the matrix are grouped interms of the services they provide to the community, and some appear in more than one quadrant but are differentiated using numbers in superscript.

The table below shows the specific actors as represented in power matrix explaining their roles and how they relate with the partners in adressing climate change issues (engagement points).We (the resilience thematic group) will work with these actors as described.

Actor / Roles / How we will engage
Local NGOs and CBOs1
Merti Integrated Development Programme(MID-P) / Community empowerment and civic education on many issues /
  • Work with them in enhancing awareness within the community
  • Collaborate in lobbying for inclusion in policy making process
  • Increasing community participation in Resource management and allocations

Ward Adaptation Planning Committee(WAPC) / Consulting and aggregating community climate adaptation plans and share with actors
Water Resource Users Association (WRUA) / Undertake local management of water resources
Dedha (14) / Mandated customarily with management of natural resources
Rangeland Users Association(RUA) / Management of strategic boreholes in Merti sub county
Waso Trust land / Advocacy for land issues
Local NGOs and CBOs2
Water management committees / Manage domestic rural water /
  • Work with them in enhancing awareness within the community
  • Work with them in maistreaming women issues in policies.
  • Generating evidence on role of women in climate change resilience

Pastoral women for Health and Education / Championing for the rights of women in pastoral areas
Government agencies (National and County)1
National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) / Disaster management, ending drought emergencies (EDE) lead agency / Collaborate with them in collecting evidence for comprehensive policy development
Ministry of water, energy environment and natural resources / Mandated with handling water, environment and natural resource issues in the county
Ministry of livestock and Agriculture / Mandated in the County with improving livestock production, veterinary and marketing and Agriculture
Government agencies (National and County)2
National Environment Management Authority ( NEMA) / Environmental management /
  • Work with them to ensure enforcement of policies that are environment sensitive
  • Work with them evidence generation and dissemination
  • Share early warning systems to improve resilience

Kenya Metereological Services (KMS) / Conducting weekly and seasonal forecasts, climate information services
Development Agencies1
European Union (EU), United State Agency for International Development (USAID) and Embassy of the kingdom of The Netherlands (EKN) / Providing financial support and establish programs and projects that builds communities’ resilience /
  • Work with them to provide joint initiatives and programmes to address livestock marketing and climate change in pastoralist counties
  • Work with them in evidence generation and dissemination through their websites
  • Establish platforms to jointly push for the enactment of national policy

Adaptation Consortium / Community resilience building at local levels through mainstreaming local plans to formal planning systems.
International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) / Climate Change Adaptation and Community resilience building
Care international / Poverty eradication and Community resilience building
United Nations Development Program (UNDP) / Helping in poverty reduction, reduction of inequalities and exclusion. Community resilience building
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) / Livestock and climate change research
Oxfam / Supporting CSO involved in development of pastoral communities
SNV / Working with CSOs in institutional capacity development, Evidence generation and policy advocacy
IFPRI
United Nation Environmental Program (UNEP) / Protect the environment and developing international policies and regulation
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) / Developing food security agenda for the world and community resilience
CordAid / Supporting CSO involved in DMP and Livelohood
Politicians1
Pastoralist Leadership Forum / Undertake lobbying for positive policies and provide political cover for the pastoralists / Work with them to jointly push for the enactment of climate change policies and startegies
Politicians2
Kenya Women Parliamentarians (KEWOPA) / Championing for the rights of women in Kenya / Work with them in maistreaming women issues in policies in Kenya.
Private Sector1
Kenya Commercil Bank Group / Financial services holding company based in Nairobi but working all over East Africa /
  • Work with them in providing pastoralists and county government with credit facilities to cushion against effects of Climate change

Private Sector2
Livestock traders associations / Investments in livestock trade /
  • Work with them in enhancing awareness within the livestock traders
  • Work with them in joint initiatives to address livestock marketing and climate change in pastoralist counties

County Livestock Marketing Council / Promote, organize and lobby for enabling environment for livestock sector
Research and academic institutions
The University of Nairobi / Develop curriculum addressing climate change, build human resource capital and research for evidence generation to policy development process /
  • Work with them in generation and dissemination of well packaged and easily accessible evidence and information on climate change
  • Work with them in bridging the knowledge gaps identified in the policies related to climate change

Kenya Institute of public policy Research Analysis(KIPPRA) / Involved in policy research and analysis, evidence generation and dissemination
Kenya National Bereau of Statistics (KNBS) / Provide national data demography and livelihood
Media
Media Platforms / Broadcast information and knowledge to the public / Dissemination of information and sharing successes on Climate issues related to Pastoralists
Religious Institutions
Mosques, Churches and traditional religions / Mobilization of the public on social and cultural issues / Dissemination of information on Climate issues related to Pastoralists
Non-pastoral communities
Agricultural and fishing communities / Involvement in advocating for improvement of their livelihoods / Work with them to improve their understanding on pastoralists issues

5. Knowledge gaps

The following areas are relevant inputs to climate change and pastoralist resilience discourse but need further research: