Chapter 1 What is aquatic marine environmental education?
This Chapter addresses important questions: What is aquatic marine environmental education? What is its objective? How does it differ from conventional education?
First item: What is aquatic marine environmental literacy?
As everyone probably knows, aquatic marine environments are indispensable to human beings. Particularly for Japanese people, living in an island nation comprising the "Japanese islands", the aquatic marine environment, in this case the "sea" is indispensable. Japanese geography, which includes areas featuring hot and humid climate, abundant forests and water sources, and islands surrounded by ocean ensures a wealth of fisheries resources and creates widely various fish-eating cultures throughout Japan making use of fisheries products. Although development of science and technology has made our life comfortable, a sense of distance from aquatic marine environments has persisted and expanded. Problems related to aquatic marine environments have become increasingly severe, as represented by landfill of seacoasts and tidal flats, reduction of fishery resources, pollution of underground water by chemical fertilizers, depletion of underground water, sewage disposal related problems, accumulation of plastic refuse in the Pacific Ocean, and reduction of the water retaining capacity of trees because of deforestation and the like. If no measures are taken, aquatic marine environments throughout the world will become irreparable conditions in the near future.
Then, what should we do to improve these circumstances? Here, the capability of using comprehensive knowledge related to aquatic marine environments is designated as "Aquatic marine environmental literacy".The author considers that the resolution of various problems of aquatic marine environments at present will be possible solely through acquisition of aquatic marine environmental literacy by as many people as possible and through their responsible decision making and action.
If "Aquatic marine environmental literacy is acquired", then it is possible to understand the influences we human beings receive from the ocean and influences we have on the ocean. Aquatic marine environmental literacy is based on ocean literacy used in the U.S. As comprehensive knowledge, we determined the "Basic principle of aquatic marine environmental literacy" consisting of 8 greater principles and 66 subsidiary items incorporating the scientific findings of aquatic marine environments and Japanese traditions and cultures.
After the "Basic principle of aquatic marine environmental literacy" is determined, interdisciplinary understanding of the aquatic marine environments became possible, and a relation between the government course [curriculum] guidelines and academic association related to aquatic marine environments was identified. School education and social education activities in the community accommodated smooth cooperation (See Photo 1, case study 5, second part, Data 1 and 2).
Photo 1. Sanriku ESD, Heigawa college [Exciting nature school].
Second item: What is aquatic marine environmental education?
The aquatic marine environment connects everything on the earth, including living things, familiar to us. It is concerned with everybody and is not specific to any particular person. Actually, how much are aquatic marine environments recognized under such an imminent environment? For example, the occurrence of red tides and blue tides caused by nutrient enrichment poses a problem in Tokyo Bay. It is said that approximately 70% of eutrophic sewage (causative substance) is attributable to anthropogenic sewage flowing into Tokyo Bay [1]). Although the issue of aquatic marine environments originates in many cases from everyone's daily life, as indicated by this case, it is difficult to say that it is fully understood by the people concerned. The first step toward solving such problems related to aquatic marine environments is that as many people as possible should observe aquatic marine environments in their daily life, exchange various ideas for solving related problems, and act considering better measures. In considering problems related to aquatic marine environments, understanding of the principle of aquatic marine environmental literacy that is comprehensive knowledge of the aquatic marine environments is vital. As many people as possible should have aquatic marine environmental literacy. After imminent aquatic marine environments are observed, problems are studied, and the principle of aquatic marine environmental literacy is understood, it will become possible to make decisions and take responsible action against various problems of aquatic marine environments and to convey these matters to the people. The objective of aquatic marine environmental education is to nurture human workers and professionals "who can observe imminent aquatic marine environments scientifically, consider various problems related to aquatic marine environments together with people, understand aquatic marine environmental literacy that is comprehensive knowledge, make responsible decisions and take responsible actions based on wider perspectives, and convey them to as many people as possible in an easy-to-understand fashion". "Observation" is to observe imminent aquatic marine environments scientifically and to consider the opinions of others about aquatic marine environments that are described in newspapers and other media. "Thinking" is to think about aquatic marine environment related various problems aggressively based on the results of observations described above, and to consider them together with people. "Understanding" is to understand the basic principle of aquatic marine environmental literacy. "Make decision and take action" is to make decisions and to take action in a responsible manner based on wide-ranging discernment. "Conveying" is to convey these matters to as many people as possible in an easy-to-understand manner. (Table 1 Behavioral objectives of human resources which aquatic marine environmental education aims at). These behavioral objectives do not restrict human behaviors as a matter of course. They are merely a goal at which aquatic marine environmental education is aimed. Various developments will be considered depending on the target person and region.
Table 1 Behavioral objective of human resources at which aquatic marine environmental education is aimed
Action objective / Specific activityObservation / The person observes imminent aquatic marine environments scientifically and listens to opinion of others, newspaper and news related to aquatic marine environments.
Thinking / The person thinks of results of matters described above observation and various problems relating to aquatic marine environments from personal motives and deliberation with people.
Understanding / The person understands "Basic principles of aquatic marine environmental literacy".
Decision making and taking action / The person makes decisions and takes action in a responsible manner for various problems of aquatic marine environments.
Conveying / The person conveys these matters to as many people as possible in an easy-to-understand manner.
When a circle of aquatic marine environmental education is widened, the relation between aquatic marine environments and human beings in the local community and association of peoples mediated by aquatic marine environments is newly recognized, with deeper association of aquatic marine environments and humans beyond national borders. If people's livelihood and mode of thinking are understood, then a relationship between sustainable aquatic marine environments and human beings can be constructed.
Third item: "Learning cycle theory" as the principle of aquatic marine environmental education
It was described previously that aquatic marine environmental education is intended such that each and every person observes various problems of the aquatic marine environments, deliberates together with others, improves aquatic marine environmental literacy, makes decisions and takes action in a responsible manner, and conveys them in an easy-to-understand manner. To accomplish such an objective, how must we perform aquatic marine environmental education based on what methodology?
Here, the author introduces "Learning cycle theory" [2]), which is designed to promote learning corresponding to the learning of the learners. This theory was developed and proposed by Dr. Robert Karplus, formerly a Professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley in the 1960s and who served as the Vice Director of Lawrence Hall of Science (LHS) for a long time. With the use of this learning cycle, autonomous learning by learners is enhanced, thereby enabling and subjective learning.
According to the learning cycle theory, the recognition and understanding phase (hereinafter designated as step) of the learner is divided into five steps of Invitation, Exploration, Concept invention, Application, and Reflection. Learners can enrich understanding and knowledge depending on their own understanding while progressing through these five steps. The following description deals with contents of five steps:
Invitation: Ascertain the interests of the learner. Attention is focused on observations and detailed statements. Combine past experiences with learning objectives.
Exploration: Remind the learner to research new educational materials.
Concept invention: Guide the learner to new understanding.
Application: Remind the learner to deliberate and analyze the problem independently. Produce a new idea or conclusion. Place oneself in real problem solving and critical thinking situations.
Reflection: Steps from invitation to application are reviewed to renew the learning cycle for later learning.
/ 1) Invitation: Ascertain the interests of the learner. Attention is focused on observation and detailed statements. Combine past experiences with objectives of the learning.2) Exploration: Remind the learner to research new educational materials.
3) Conceptinvention: Guide the learner to new understanding.
4) Application: Remind the learner to deliberate and analyze the problem by himself/herself. Produce a new idea or conclusion. Place oneself in real problem solving and critical thinking situations.
5) Reflection: Steps from invitation to application are reviewed to renew the learning cycle for later learning.
Figure 1 Learning cycle theory.
Learning cycle theory enriches understanding and knowledge depending on the learner's understanding, while using the following five steps:
Learning cycle theory is applied to aquatic marine environmental education as follows:
[Invitation] Scenes where a learner's interest and concern are encouraged while urging questions and observations of events and things such as familiar aquatic marine environments (discover, question, make hypothesis).
[Exploration]Scenes where the learner actively explores several tasks related to aquatic marine environments and tackle together with other learners (verify the hypothesis). Verification of hypothesis denotes comparative investigation of hypothesis, fresh start of making hypothesis to be verified, planning of experiments, data sampling, data analysis, and interpretation.
[Concept invention] Scene where the learner performs subjective research and acquires a new concept such as aquatic marine environmental literacy related to studies explored together with other learners (assessment of verification results of hypothesis)
[Application] Based on learning related to aquatic marine environments enriched by invitation, research, and confidence of concept, scene where the learner thinks of aquatic marine environments from individual motives, analyzes and creates a new concept or conclusion.
[Reflection]Scene where what has been done to date is reviewed for use in the subsequent learning step. For example, a poster presentation of learning meeting of aquatic marine environments is already held, and information transmission in the form of a Web site and Web log are regarded as reviewed activities (Table 2).
As described above, in the aquatic marine environmental education, subjective and responsible decision making and action are done while going through five steps. If a series of cycles is stepped up for the next learning cycle and learning is expanded in spiral fashion, then the learner can improve actively aquatic marine environmental literacy further and make decisions and take action in a more responsible manner.
Table 2 Aquatic marine environmental education based on learning cycle theory
Item / Specific activitiesInvitation / Scenes where interest and concern of the learner are excited while urging questions and observations of events and things such as imminent aquatic marine environments (discover, question, make hypothesis).
Exploration / Scenes where the learner actively explores several tasks related to aquatic marine environments and tackles them together with other learners (verify the hypothesis). Verification of hypothesis means comparative investigation of hypothesis, fresh start of making hypothesis to be verified, planning of experiments, data sampling, data analysis, and interpretation.
Concept
invention / Scene where the learner performs subjective exploration and acquires a new concept such as aquatic marine environmental literacy for studies explored together with other learners (assessment of verification results of hypothesis).
Application / Based on learning related to aquatic marine environments enriched by invitation, exploration, and confidence of concept, scene where the learner thinks of aquatic marine environments from an individual motivation, then analyzes and creates a new concept or conclusion.
Reflection / Scene where what has been done so far is reviewed for use in the next learning step. For example, a poster presentation of a learning meeting of aquatic marine environments already held, information transmission in the form of Web site and Web log are regarded as review activities.
Fourth Item: Education promoted primarily by learners based on learning cycle theory
It has already been stated that learning based on the learning cycle theory is primarily for learners. Then, how specifically is education primarily by learners based on the learning cycle theory deployed?
The traditional education method prevailing in Japan is educator initiative education, which assigns importance to how correctly organized knowledge is conveyed from the knowledge teacher to the learners. With educator initiative education, it is possible to convey knowledge efficiently. Moreover, the learner is able to receive knowledge that is taught efficiently. This is certainly effective to instruct organized knowledge––government mandated courses (curriculum guidelines)––efficiently in school education. It is an important education method. However, its salient shortcoming is that information tends to be transmitted one-sidedly. Moreover, the learner is liable to receive information correctly merely as a receiver.
Learner initiative education promotes learning based on discovery and awareness of the learner, which is, so to speak, contradictory to educator initiative education. With learning cycle theory, learning is deepened while the learner explores actively instead of one-sided education from the educator to students where the educator transmits information and the learner receives it. However, learning cycle theory should not be misunderstood as leaving everything to a learner and letting the learner do what the learner wants to do. The important thing is that a learner's ideas are sorted and that their applied skill is improved while learning by the learner is absolutely esteemed. A person who fulfills a role of this sort is designated as a facilitator-like educator.
The learning cycle theory is emphasized in aquatic marine environmental education because aquatic marine environments are an unknown world. They are best examined not only with learner initiative education. Moreover, the concept of learner initiative education is necessary for nurturing of human resources capable of coping with resolution of various problems in imminent aquatic marine environments.
The learning cycle theory, which promotes learner initiative learning, is not intended to handle imminent aquatic marine environmental problems in an instruction-waiting style. It meets a goal of cultivating workers and professionals who can be developed by aquatic marine environmental education to "observe independently, and deliberate, understand, act, and convey" and to "tackle various problems of aquatic marine environments actively" (See Table 1).
Japan became an economic giant in a short period by absorbing modern science and technology. When visiting foreign countries, anyone can notice made-in-Japan products such as automobiles, land transport machinery, electronic equipment such as cameras, as well as Japanese food including sushi in almost any country. Moreover, Japanese technology is highly appreciated. It might be said that such economic development has been attained over a short time by imparting knowledge and technologies through educator initiative education.
However, when confronting various problems in which uncovering information for aquatic marine environmental problem resolution is not possible, as frequently occurs in the modern society, in such circumstances that past system is not helpful at all. For example, aquatic marine environment related unresolved problems including contamination of underground water, waste disposal issue, rubbish in the ocean, and pollution by accumulation of chemical substances. Many of these problems can only be resolved slightly in a single sweep. In such a difficult phase in modern society, such a capability is sought that can resolve problems while problem solving processes are constructed by oneself, and consensus formation is attempted in deliberations. The objective of learning cycle theory is to construct a problem-solving process by oneself and to develop problem solving capabilities. This idea might be regarded as necessary for cultivation of workers and professionals who can process and resolve various problems in the modern society as well as science education.
The learning cycle theory serves as a basis for inquiry-based learning (learning based on questions raised by pupils), which has a long history of almost 50 years in science education in the U.S. This theory is applied to the experience learning exhibition (visitors touch a display from their own motive) exhibited at the Exploratorium (experience type science and education museum) in San Francisco, Lawrence Hall of Science at the University of California, Berkeley or the like.
In Japan, inquiry-based learning is translated as research-type learning. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology refers to this in government course [curriculum] guidelines and states that research-type learning (activity) is extremely important in cultivating physical and intellectual ability. However, it is difficult to say that the concept and importance of inquiry-based learning has become widespread in Japan. Aquatic marine environmental education aims at cultivation of human resources who present research activities based on the learning cycle theory and aims at "observing, thinking, understanding, acting, conveying". It is considered that application of the learning cycle theory is possible for "acquisition", " exploration", "usage" or cultivation of scientific "thinking power", "expressive power" or "comprehension power", "judgment" in the new guidelines for teaching. It is desired that aquatic marine environmental education based on the learning cycle theory be implemented extensively.