Analysis of Instructional Design and a Rationale for the Model of Instruction

Analysis of Instructional Design and a Rationale for the Model of Instruction

for a Graduate Level Educational Technology Course in Hypermedia

by

Diana F. Abernathy Dell

A Paper Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements of

ED 7620 - Theoretical Basis of Instructional Design

April, 2004

Abstract

The attributes of hypermedia offer clear advantages over many traditional teaching and learning tools. The known benefits of hypermedia have created an increased demand for hypermedia skills and products within educational institutions. To meet this demand, educators must understand the pedagogical basis for the integration of hypermedia into instruction. Furthermore, they must receive technical training to develop skill in using hypermedia tool software. This paper provides an analysis of instructional design theories and principles that result in the creation of an eclectic model of instruction for a graduate level educational technology course in hypermedia.

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Table of Contents

Table of Contentsii

I. Introduction 1

II. Analysis of Learner Characteristics and Needs2

III. Theories, Principles, and Methodologies that Relate to Course Development 3
A. Adult Learning Theory and Online Methodologies 3

B. Learning Communities and Online Technologies 5C. Learning by Doing and Principles of Effective Software Training 7

IV. Application of Theories and Principles in the Design of a Course in Hypermedia 7

V. A Comprehensive Description of the Hypermedia Course 10

VI. Assessment of Learning 12VII. Description of Feedback and Evaluation Process for Continuous Course Revision 13

VIII. References 14

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Analysis of Instructional Design and a Rationale for the Model of Instruction

Introduction

Educational technology changes rapidly. Educators who fail to keep abreast of the changes are at risk of losing a viable advantage in teaching their students. Hypermedia, an acronym that combines the words “hypertext” and “multimedia”, has tremendous potential as an educational technology tool. Features of hypermedia allow learners to read, hear, see, and interact with information. It can be used by teachers to support instruction and by students as a knowledge construction tool. (Caughlin, 2002) The attributes of hypermedia offer clear advantages over many traditional teaching and learning tools. The known benefits of hypermedia have created an increased demand for hypermedia skills and products within educational institutions. (McBride, & DeBoer, 2001). To meet this demand, educators must understand the pedagogical basis for the integration of hypermedia into instruction. Furthermore, they must receive technical training to develop skill in using hypermedia tool software.

Design and development of CED 530: Hypermedia is to assist educators in meeting the demands for hypermedia skills and products. It is a required course in the Computers in Education Master’s Degree Program at Fontbonne University. An introduction to hypermedia tools used in education will be presented. The emphasis will be placed on integrating these tools into the school's curriculum, analysis of available resources for educational technology, and examination and development of hypermedia stacks and presentations for educational purposes. This course will be a hybrid with half of the coursework completed online and half completed in a face-to-face computer lab setting.

The objectives for the course state that the student will:

• demonstrate skills needed to develop presentations using hypermedia tools.
• plan, design, present, and evaluate hypermedia presentations.
• integrate hypermedia tools into content-area instruction.
• use hypermedia tools to support a constructivist approach to learning.

Analysis of Learner Characteristics and Needs

The adult learners enrolled in this course are quite diverse. They are representative of the degree seeking students in the Computers in Education Program. They bring with them extraordinarily rich and assorted backgrounds and experiences that mold their interactions with others. They range in age from 24 to 55. All are teachers or are studying to become teachers. Their teaching experiences vary from education students with no experience to veteran teachers with more than 25 years in the classroom. Of those who are currently teaching, one half teach in public schools and one half teach in private or parochial schools. Their subject areas vary from music to industrial technology. The grade levels taught by the learners vary from kindergarten through high school. Approximately three-fourths of the learners have taken a course entitled “Computer Applications” in which they were briefly introduced to the concept of hypermedia and PowerPoint, one of the two software programs taught in this course. The remaining one-fourth of the learners have no prior knowledge or experience with the concept of hypermedia or with PowerPoint software. None of the learners have experience with HyperStudio, the additional software program that is taught within the context of this course. Some plan to continue their study of hypermedia by taking a follow up course elective entitled CED 550 Hypermedia Production.

Theories, Principles, and Methodologies that Relate to Course Development

To successfully design such a course in hypermedia for this diverse collection of adult learners, one must understand the varied backgrounds and experiences they bring into the classroom and investigate ways to create an open, supportive learning community that builds on these experiences as it meets the needs of its members. Additionally, one must also understand the unique qualities and challenges of delivering hypermedia via the Internet. Due to the hybrid nature of this course, one must have knowledge of effective principles for software training in a lab environment as well as strategies for delivering instruction online.

No one instructional design theory or model meets both of the needs of the learners and the content requirements of the course. This calls for an eclectic approach to instructional design. A combination of theories including adult learning, learning communities in classrooms, and learning by doing will be integrated to design this course. Additionally, drawing on the principles of effective software training and online instructional methodologies will assist in designing the course to meet learner needs and achieve content-related objectives.

Adult Learning Theory and Online Methodologies

The principles of adult learning theory can be incorporated in the design of this course to make the instruction and learning activities more relevant and meaningful for the participants. Malcolm Knowles’ theory of andragogy (1980) attempts to explain the fundamental nature of learning in adults. In essence, andragogy is a set of principles on the subject of how adults learn.

Adult learners have a deep need to be self-directing. To maximize learning they need to be free to direct themselves. Instructors must actively involve adult participants in the learning process and serve as facilitators for them rather than as a "sage on the stage." (Palloff and Pratt, 2003) Instruction designed for adults tends to be more effective if it is learner-centered than if it is instructor-centered. To be learner-centered, instructors must act as facilitators, guiding participants to their own knowledge rather than supplying them with facts. Instructors should avoid merely transmitting knowledge or "spoon-feeding" adult learners. Younger adult learners or learners who are new to adult education may need more support and structure as they move toward autonomy. Technology and course structure can be used to assist these learners without interfering with the independence of learners who have reached complete autonomy.

Adults are relevancy-oriented and practical, focusing on the aspects of a lesson that prove to be most useful to them in their work. They must understand the reason for learning something. (Knowles, 1980) Learning must be applicable to their work or other responsibilities to be of value to them. According to Knowles (1980, p. 44), adult learners “experience a need to learn it in order to cope more satisfyingly with real-life tasks or problems.” Letting participants choose projects that reflect their own interests and goals can fulfill this need. Adult learners value being able to take something they have learned or a product they have created from the classroom and apply it immediately in their work.

Knowles, Holton, and Swanson call attention to the belief that “adults resent and resist situations in which they feel others are imposing their wills on them.” (1998, p.65) Instructors should try to establish a friendly, open atmosphere that shows the adult learner they will help them learn and reach their individual goals. Instructors should treat all questions and comments with respect.

The degree of difficulty of the content and learning activities should be set high enough to challenge participants, however, not so high that they become frustrated by information overload. Adult learners bring varying background experiences with them when they enter the classroom. For this reason, providing lesson options rather than a mandatory lesson allows them to make choices based upon their background experiences and their unique goals for the course. To require an adult learner to spend valuable time interacting with content and skills they have already mastered serves no purpose. Adult learners may become frustrated and view it as time wasted when it could have been better spent learning new concepts and skills.

The integration of technology and online methodologies will assist designers of adult learning to avoid this unnecessary frustration in learners. The capabilities of online technology such as hypertext and branching, provides learners with the ability to skip lesson parts that have been mastered through life experience. Organizing the course content with hyperlinked lesson parts permits students to pursue a pathway of learning that most suitably fits and connects with their prior knowledge and life experiences. When text resources are used in lieu of technology, adult learners should be encouraged to skip or skim the parts of the text, which relate to topics and skills they have previously mastered.

Learning Communities and Online Technologies

Education in America has taken on a learning-communities approach in recent years. Reigeluth (1999, p.270) considers the most important goal of the learning communities theory is “to advance the collective knowledge and skills and thereby to support the growth of individual knowledge and skills.”

Bielaczyc and Collins (1999, p.272) state that one of the most important characteristics a learning community must have is “diversity in expertise among its members.” Adult learners with real world experiences can be used as a resource for both the instructor and for other students. By asking open-ended questions one can draw out the knowledge and experiences of adult learners. Open-ended questions in this environment can foster a channel of communication among students. Preece (2000) notes that communication in learning communities influences vocabulary, topics of discussion, and what is considered important in regard to a course of study. “Questions posed in the online environment need to be the jumping-off point of a discussion promoting deep exploration of a topic.” (Palloff & Pratt, 1999, p.119)

“The most powerful experiences are those in which interactions occurs throughout the group instead of between one participant and the facilitator within a group setting.” (Palloff & Pratt, 1999, p.19) “In general, higher levels of satisfaction occur with online learning when collaboration is an integral part of the course design.” (Palloff & Pratt, 2003, p. 131)

Palloff & Pratt (1999) suggest some necessary steps for the building of online learning communities. One must provide a virtual space for the group to meet and communicate. The purpose of the group and the code of conduct must be clearly defined or developed by the group. Leadership can be promoted from within by allowing a range of member roles. Additionally, members should be encouraged to resolve their own disputes.

The key to successful learning communities is the open communication of ideas. In the online environment, the Internet serves as the communication tool that connects the learners and the instructor. Individual learners can access resources from the Internet, but groups can also use these same resources.Learners can communicate with other group member by using e-mail or the group areas of many course management systems. Information can also be published on websites to allow access for other group members.

Learning by Doing and Principles of Effective Software Training

Reigeluth (1999, p.163) asserts that one of primary goals of the learning by doing theory is “to foster skill development.” Schank, Berman, and Macpherson affirm “There is only one effective way to teach someone how to do anything, and that is to let them do it.” (Schank, Berman, & Macpherson, 1999, p.164) This sentiment is also reflected in the proverbial education quote “Tell me, I forget ... Show me, I remember... Involve me, I understand.” Software use cannot be learned through lecture or demonstration. Learners must interact with the software as much as possible. Lab sessions should be structured with this in mind. Learners need the opportunity to work directly with the software in a supported environment at their own pace. Adult learners also appreciate being able to take a product or skill directly from the lab session and use it in their work the next day.

Technology training for teachers should focus on what teachers can use in their classrooms to help students learn better. (Diaz, 2001) Diaz advocates “pedagogy-based technology training” that not only teaches the “how-to” of the software, but also how to integrate the newly learned technology skills and knowledge into their classroom instructional practices. Technology training for teachers should therefore, emphasize good teaching, not just good technology. In general, adults tend to be more interested in straightforward how-to knowledge than in theory. For this reason, designers of adult courses should focus on theories only within the context of their applications to real world situations and problems.

Application of Theories and Principles in the Design of a Course in Hypermedia

To better meet the needs of the adult learners enrolled in this course, a pre-course survey was conducted through email. The information that was learned as a result of this survey was used to design a learner-centered approach to instruction for this specific group of learners. The following questions appeared on the survey:

• How long have you been teaching?
• What subject and grade levels do you teach?
• Rate yourself as a beginner, user, or expert in hypermedia integration.
• Rate yourself as a beginner, user, or expert in hypermedia production.
• Briefly describe your experience, if any, with PowerPoint.
• Do you have access to PowerPoint at home or school?
• Briefly describe your experience, if any, with HyperStudio.
• Do you have access to HyperStudio at home or school?
• During the weeks that learning takes place online, what day of the week would you prefer the initial response to discussion questions posted? Follow up responses?
• During the weeks that learning takes place in the lab, how would you most like to spend your time?
• How are you connected to the Internet: Dial-up, cable, T1, DSL
• What are your goals for this course?

An analysis of the responses that were received from learners guided the development of CED 530: Hypermedia. The diversity in background and expertise of learners was a clear indication that a learning-community approach was needed. This diversity also suggests that collaborative group work could be successfully implemented. Additionally, all of the information gained from the pre-course survey was addressed with an appropriate learning principle or theory.

More learners had access to PowerPoint than HyperStudio, therefore more lab sessions were devoted to learning to use PowerPoint effectively. Adults are relevancy-oriented and see little need in learning a software program to which they do not have access. Furthermore, the learners could choose the software program with which to construct the final project.

Most learners indicated that they learn software use best with a hands-on approach. This finding was congruent with principles of software training and the learning by doing theory. Face-to-face lab sessions were structured to maximize hands-on interaction with the software. Learning modules were created from text and online resources to allow learners to work at their own pace. The instructor’s role was one of facilitation and support.

Some learners with moderate skills in PowerPoint were concerned about time wasted on practicing skills that they had already mastered. The learning modules that were created from text and online resources allow learners to work at their own pace. Learners were encouraged to skip the parts of the module that had been previously mastered. An alternate lesson module that resulted in a classroom-ready, interactive hypermedia game was added to the course.

A few learners indicated an interest in learning Windows Movie Maker2 as their school had just acquired this software. An alternate lesson module covering the basic use of Windows Movie Maker 2 was added to the course. Emphasis was placed on ways this software program could be used in conjunction with the hypermedia tool software.