AN OVERVIEW ON DEFORESTATION IN INDONESIA
Ani Mardiastuti
Introduction
Deforestation is a problem throughout the world. The increasing rates of deforestation have become an issue of national and global concern, since they have major consequences for the national economy, community livelihoods, and global forest biodiversity. Further, the estimation of deforestation and forest degradation now become much more important in the global context, as the policies and decisions in the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) develop so rapidly. As part of the carbon cycle, tropical forests are substantial carbon sinks and this type of forest has absorbed and sequestered (store) large amounts of carbon.
The aim of this paper is to present summary on deforestation in Indonesia, based on a review of various available reports. Topics covered in this paper include the history, global deforestation, rate of deforestation in Indonesia, causes and agents of deforestation, and impact of deforestation.
Definition of Deforestation
The term “deforestation” is used quite variably, so itis important to have a precise definition. The simplest definition of deforestation is ‘the clearing of forests’[1]. Others defined deforestation as ‘the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land for use such as arable land, pasture, urban use, logged area, or wasteland’[2]. In addition, as natural disasters might also contribute to the loss of forest and, deforestation in general can be defined as ‘the loss or continual degradation of forest habitat due to either natural or human-related causes’(Nawiret al.2007, FAO 2005, Contreras-Hermosilla 2000). Conversely, the creation of a new forest can be attained from afforestation and rehabilitation programs (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Forest change dynamics (FAO 2005).
Figure 1 is a simplified model illustrating forest change dynamics. It has only two classes: forests and all other land. A reduction in forest area can happen through either one of two processes, namely deforestation and natural disasters. Deforestation, which is by far the most important, implies that forests are cleared by people and the land converted to another use, such as agriculture or infrastructure. Natural disasters may also destroy forests. An increase in forest area can also happen in two ways: either through afforestation, i.e. planting of trees on land that was not previously forested, or through natural expansion of forests, e.g. on abandoned agricultural land (FAO 2005).
Although it seems simple, the definition arises many ambiguities as compiled by Sunderlin & Resosudarmo (1996): (1) Does “deforestation” refer to just permanent, or both permanent and temporary removal of forest cover? (2) Does “deforestation” refer to the loss of forest cover for all kinds of uses, or does it refer to the loss of forest cover that will never again regenerate for timber production? (3) Does “deforestation” refer to the removal of forest cover alone, or does it refer as well to the loss of various kinds of forest attributes, such as density, structure and species composition? (4) Is the “agent of deforestation” the one that removes the forest cover, or the one that subsequently prevents the regrowth of forest cover? (5) Is the “agent of deforestation” most appropriately defined in terms of the ultimate designated use of cleared forest land, rather than by the actions and intentions of those who actually clear the forest?
Despite the various existing definitions and the ambiguities, scientists have been trying to find out the rate of deforestation, either in a global context, national, or in a smaller geographical region. Various approached were introduced in an attempt to quantify the deforestation rate. The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO 2005) uses two different parameters in defining deforestation. First, based on land use, deforestation is defined as ‘the conversion of forest land to another land use’. Second, according to crown cover, deforestation is defined as ‘the long term reduction of this parameter below a 10% threshold’. However, any discussion on the rates of deforestation and total area deforested isclouded by the lack of clear or consistent key definitions agreed by all stakeholdersand of adequate baseline and time-series data on forest cover changes (FWI/GFW 2002, Kartodihardjo Supriono 2000, Sunderlin Resosudarmo1996).
Deforestation and Degradation
The term ‘deforestation’ oftenused simultaneously with ‘degradation’. Thus, it is important to understand the relation between the two terms. Deforestation, as mentioned previously, may be defined as a reduction of canopy cover below 10%. As aresult, significant degradation can take place before crossing the threshold to deforestation. A selective logging operation usually does not reduce canopy cover to that extent, leading to forest degradation rather than deforestation. Deforestation is normally a more drastic land-use change, often characterized by the clearing of trees and conversion to alternative land uses, predominantly agriculture. However, forest degradation can often indirectly leadto deforestation through various pathways (e.g., logging operations providing easier access for farmers). Deforestation can also result from the clearance of land for open-pit mining, urban sprawl or other uses (Kanninen et al. 2007).
Forest degradation, therefore, is similar to deforestation, although usually only some of the treesareremoved, sometimes leaving the forest as an altered ecosystem, devoid of some of itsoriginal ecological characteristics (Gorte & Sheikh 2008). Degraded forest land or degraded land is often defined as ‘the formerly forested lands severely impacted by intensive and/or repeated disturbance’, e.g. fires or illegal logging (Nawir et al. 2007, Contreras-Hermosilla 2000).In most cases, degradation does not show as a decrease in the area of woody vegetation but rather as a gradual reduction of biomass, changes in species composition and soil degradation (Contreras-Hermosilla 2000). The degraded forest land delivers a reduced supply of goodsand services from a given site (Nawir et al. 2007).
Global Deforestation
In the last three centuries, global forest area has been reduced by approximately 40%, with three quarters of this loss occurring during the last two centuries. Worldwide, forest loss and degradation are driven by a combination of economic, political, and institutional factors (WRI 2005b). Total forest area as of 2005 is estimated at 3,952 million hectares or 30% of total land area. This corresponds to an average of 0.62 ha of forest per capita. Deforestation, mainly due to conversion of forests to agricultural land, continues at an alarmingly high rate: some 13 million hectares per year.The rate of net loss is decreasing due to afforestation and natural expansion of forests in some countries and regions(FAO 2005). Fig.2 shows the ten countries with largest forest areas and annual net loss in forest area. Indonesia ranks the eighth for the forest area and the second for the net loss in forest area.
Fig. 2. Ten countries with largest forest areas (top) and annual net loss in forest area, 2000-2005 (bottom) (FAO 2005).
History of Deforestation in Indonesia
About a century ago, Indonesia was still densely forested, with trees covering an estimated 80-95% of the total land area, depending on the island being considered. Total forest cover at that time has been estimated at about 170 million ha (Holmes 2002).
Forest management in Indonesia has been influenced mostly by dynamic changes in government policies and the economic condition of the country, which allows forestry management policies to be grouped into four periods: (a). 1950–75: during this period the policy for agricultural expansion in forest areas resulted in natural disasters, such as floods and land erosion, mainly in Java; deforestation occurred mainly because of the trading policy of the Dutch East India Company or VOC (Vereenigde Oost Indische Compagnie), which recognised forests as timber (logs) resources for construction and shipbuilding; (b). 1975–90: during this period, besides that from the oil sector, the governmentreceived revenues from a boom in the timber industries resulting from the policyreleasing logging permits to concessionaires or concession-right holders; (c). 1990–97: in this period, the deforestation outside state forests becamethe government’s main focus of attention in terms of forest management; deforestation was caused mainly by extensive conversion of forest to estatecrops, such as oil palm, following government priorities of boosting the revenuesfrom exports and increasing international prices; (d). 1997–present (Reformation Era): during this period forest fires, the implementation of regionalautonomy and its consequences, illegal logging, and increasing forest encroachmentare the main factors that have continued to cause deforestation and threatened thesustainability of the remaining 120.35 million ha of Indonesian forests (Nawir et al. 2007, FWI/GWF 2002).
Deforestation became a real concern in Indonesia in the early 1970s, when large-scale commercial logging concessions were established for the first time. Despite the fact that logging concessions were intended to establish a system of long-term timber production, they sometimes led to serious forest degradation followed by clearance and conversion to other forms of land use (FWI/GWF 2002).
The changes in forest management policies have always been in line with the aims of improving the national economic condition. These dynamic changes have also affected the progression of deforestation rates with consequences for ecological and livelihood aspects (Nawir et al. 2007). Throughout Indonesia, forest clearance began in the lowland areas, where topography and soil fertility were most favorable to human settlement and agriculture (FWI/GWF 2002).
Deforestation Rate of Indonesia
Various workers often reported different figures on deforestation rate. The differences are due to the differences in definition and methods used, coupled with many other ambiguity factors mentioned bySunderlin & Resosudarmo (1996). As for the figure of deforestation rate of Indonesia, the most frequent data cited in many publications (e.g., Nawir et al. 2007, Kanninen et al. 2007, Angelsen 2007, Tacconi et al. 2004, FWI/GWF 2002) were from the World Bank (Holmes 2002). Based on the estimation of forest lost by using RePPProt and Ministry of Forestry’s map, the average rate of national deforestation during 1985 and 1997 was 1.67 million ha/year (often rounded to 1.7 ha million ha/year). In the 1980s, the annual deforestation rate nationwide was estimated at 800,000 ha per year (Holmes 2002). In term of the percentage of loss, Sumatra (28.7%) ranked the first, followed by Kalimantan (21.2%) and Sulawesi (20.1%) (Table 1; see also Annexes 1 and 2).
Table 1. Rates of deforestation in Indonesia based on island, 1985-1997 (Holmes 2002).
Island / Forest Lost (ha) / % Loss / Rate of loss (ha/year)Sumatra / 6,691,357 / 28.7 / 557,613
Kalimantan / 8,437,792 / 21.2 / 706,149
Sulawesi / 2,269,400 / 20.1 / 189,117
Maluku / 809,494 / 12.7 / 67,458
Papua / 1,798,069 / 5.1 / 147,839
Java & Bali / nd / nd / nd
Nusa Tenggara / nd / nd / nd
Indonesia / 20,042,112 / 16.7 / 1,670,176
nd: no data
The most recent data on global and national deforestation rate was provided by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). As mentioned in the previous part, FAO (2005) reported that during the period 1990–2005, the global deforestation rate was estimated at 13 million hectares per year, of which 2.851 million ha/year was contributed by South and Southeast Asia. Country with the highest forest deforestation rate was Brazil at 3.103 million ha/year, followed by Indonesia at a rate of 1.871 million ha/year. This figure obviously shows an increasing rate compare to that of estimated previously by Holmes (2002). In term of percentage, Kanninen et al. (2007) estimated that the average deforestation rate in South and Southeast Asia was about one percent, with Indonesia having a net annual loss of two per cent over the period 2000-2005.
In Sumatra, estimation of the deforestation rate by Holmes (2002) revealed that the provinces of South Sumatra and Jambi recording the most rapid rates of forest loss. Very recent report by Ruyu et al. (2008)showed that currently Riau experiencing the most rapid deforestation. During the last 25 years, Riau has lost that more that 4 million ha (65%) of forest. Forest cover in that province declined from 78% in 1982 to only 27% in 2008. Deforestation between 2005 and 2006 was 286,146 ha, an 11% lost in just one year. This 2008 deforestation figure is much higher than 1997 (i.e., 72,051 ha/year) from Holmes (2002). Changes in forest cover in 2000 and 2005 in Sumatra are presented in Annex 3.
As for the degradation area, Nawir et al. (2007) reported that currently Indonesia has 96.3 million ha of degraded forestland due to illegal logging, forest fires, forest conversion, unplanned agricultural expansion, and social conflict over forest resources. An estimated 54.6 million ha of this degraded forestland includes production forests and conservation and protection forests, and 41.7 million ha of degraded land outside forest areas.
Causes of Deforestation
It is important to understand the range causes of deforestation, so that any interventions made can be synergized with the efforts to address the underlying causes of deforestation. The causes of deforestation and degradation can usefully be separated into two categories (Fig. 3). The first involves factors that are directly linked to the act of clearing or degrading land, referred to as ‘direct’ or ‘proximate’ causes. The direct causes of deforestation are mainly natural conditions/causes and human activities. The second category includes the background societal factors that drivethese direct causes, which are referred to as ‘underlying causes’(Contreras-Hermosilla 2000, Kaimowitz & Angelsen 1998).
Fig. 3. The causes of deforestation (Contreras-Hermosilla 2000).
- Direct Causes
Natural Causes. Natural causes of deforestation include natural fires, hurricanes, insects attack, diseases, plant parasites or other natural catastrophes such as landslides, erosion, and cyclones(Contreras-Hermosilla 2000). However, it is very difficult to estimate the total area affected and deforested due to these causes.
Forest Fires. Indonesia has experienced major outbreaks of fire twice: during 1982/83 (which damaged 2.7 million ha of tropical rainforest) and 1997/98 (which damaged 5.4 million ha of forest, mostly in Kalimantan and Sumatra) (FWI/GFW 2002). During long seasons of drought (such as those caused by El Niño) forest fires are often unmanageable (FWI/GFW 2002). Current estimation on the total area affected by fires, which does not include only forests, was 11.7 million ha across the five islands of Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and West Papua (Tacconi 2003). The causes of the fires varied, but the main source was intentional burning, during land-clearance prior to the development of estate crops, that spread out of control. The degree of fire damage of forest areas is directly correlated to the level of forest degradation (FWI/GFW 2002).
Logging. Human activities in relation to forest extraction have been the main causes of deforestation, mainly through logging operations, illegal logging and fires (Tacconi 2003, WI/GWF 2002, Sunderlin Resosudarmo 1996). Logging in Indonesia contributes to an estimated 77,000–120,000 ha of deforestation annually. This is about 10–20% of the total deforested area and 10–15% of the 800,000 ha logged each year (Sunderlin Resosudarmo 1996). Since 2001, the trend has been for the number of logging companies or HPH to decline, following the increasing rates of deforestation and increasing volumes of wood loggedillegally (Tacconi2003). Although the number of HPH companies has declined, the area deforested has continued to increase because of other problems, such as illegal logging. There is no clear information on the areas of forest affected by illegal logging. Tacconi (2003) estimated illegally logged areas to be about 2.5 million ha in 2001, with a total volume of 50 million m3 based on the assumed harvesting rate of 20 m3 per ha.
Agriculture. Agricultural activities that result in the clearing andconversion of forestland include the establishment ofpermanent cropland, shifting cultivation and cattle ranching (Kanninen et al. 2007). The agricultural expansion is in some cases driven by smallholders, who respond spontaneously to favorable market conditions. The role of small-scale traditional agriculture, relative to other causes of deforestation, has been the subject of great controversy (Sunderlin Resosudarmo 1996, Sunderlin 1998). No accurate data are available for the area of forest cleared by small-scale farmers since 1985, but a plausible estimate in 1990 suggested that shifting cultivators might be responsible for about 20% of forest loss (FWI/GFW 2002). During the 1980s and 1990s, shifting cultivation was widely blamed as a significant, perhaps even the dominant, cause of deforestation in Indonesia. Of the nearly 7 million ha of conversion forest officially approved for estate crop development by 1997, nearly 1 million ha were designated for development under the smallholder plantation program (Kartodihardjo & Supriono 2000, Sunderlin 1997).
Transmigration. According to estimates by the Ministry of Forestry, the transmigration program was responsible for nearly 2 million ha of forest clearance over the period of 1960s to 1999. In addition, small farmers and opportunistic small-scale investors have contributed to deforestation by establishing cash crops, especially oil palm and cocoa, in forests opened up by larger-scale logging or plantation operations(FWI/GFW 2002).
Estates and Plantation. Chomitz (2007) found that tree crops, rather than subsistence-oriented shifting cultivation, plays a major role in deforestation in Indonesia. There are huge discrepancies in the estimates of deforestation resulting from the growth of estates and plantations. The estimates range from a low of 11,400 ha/year to 274,000 ha/year (Sunderlin Resosudarmo 1996). Oil palms now cover more than 3 million ha, rivaling rubber plantations in extent and export value. The majority of existing oil palm plantations are located in Sumatra, but expansion is proceeding rapidly in Kalimantan, especially in West Kalimantan. Further rapid development of this crop is expected to occur in East Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua. As for the industrial timber plantations (Hutan Tanaman Industri, HTI), according to official figures, some 7.9 million ha had been allocated for HTI concession development by the end of 2000, but only 23.5% of that area had actually been planted (FWI/GFW 2002).
Other Causes. Other human activities that contribute to the deforestation in Indonesia are mining and oil extraction, construction of dam, road development, and house development. Cattle ranching have been responsible for deforestation in some countries in South America (Chomitz 2007), but there is no information about this for Indonesia, although the loss of forest due to cattle ranching probably very low compare to others.
A further review by Kaimowitz & Angelsen (1998) concludes that deforestation tends to be greater when forested lands are more accessible, agricultural and timber prices are higher, rural wages are lower, and there are more opportunities for long distance trade. Population and migration both affect deforestation rates, but in a complex fashion that cannot simply be reduced to saying population growth promotes deforestation.