Chapter 9:
State, Society, and the Quest for Salvation in India
Themes: Throughout most of its history, the subcontinent of India is divided into regional kingdoms, and not united under one ruler. This concept is difficult for students, initially, because they know only a country that is synonymous with the subcontinent. The classical Mauryan and Gupta empires are short but important interludes because they laid foundations for commerce and religion throughout the subcontinent and into Asia that persisted well past their dynasties.
For AP world history, there is no need to go into the details of regime changes. A quick overview from Alexander to Chandragupta Maurya to Ashoka Maurya will suffice. Ashoka set up a tightly organized bureaucracy; a central treasury; public works projects such as irrigation systems and imperial roads; and centralized laws that were communicated on inscribed pillars throughout the empire. Ashoka converted to Buddhism and his imperial favor and sponsorship of monasteries and missionaries helped spread the new religion throughout Asia. The dynasty collapsed shortly after his death, and regional kingdoms replaced it.
The Greco-Indian kingdom of Bactria controlled the northern subcontinent for two centuries, and then the central-Asian Kushans took the region over for the next three centuries. These northern Indian kingdoms were central to the silk roads trade for five centuries.
The Gupta dynasty controlled the region from 320-550 C.E., creating a tributary empire that was much less centralized than the Mauryans, but nonetheless continued to provide peace and prosperity to the northern areas. All of this is key to understanding the importance of the region to the interregional trade networks of the silk roads. Without peace, no one will travel the roads. With peace, people, goods, and ideas are easily exchanged
The entrenched caste system, which by the classical era had subdivided into jati, provides the backdrop to understanding the appeal of Jainism and Buddhism. They were reactions against the power and influence of the Brahmins, as well as commentaries on the declining relevance in some quarters of the agricultural-based rituals that the Brahmins performed and on which their power rested.[1] Women were allowed to become Buddhist nuns, and along with Buddhist monks, they spread the religion throughout Asia along the silk roads. Buddhism was also spread through the education available at monasteries. In reaction to the appeal of Buddhism, a more “user-friendly” version of Hinduism evolved that emphasized salvation thorough participation and responsibility rather than through detachment from worldly affairs.
Chapter 9 Reading Questions:
1. How did the Persian conquest set the stage for the emergence of the Maurya Empire? About 520 B.C.E. the Persian emperor Darius crosses the Hindu Kush Mountains, conquered parts of northwestern India, and made the kingdom of Gandhara on the northern Punjab a province of the Achaemenid Empire. The establishment of Achaemenid authority in India introduced local rulers to Persian techniques of administration. In 327 B.C.E. Alexander crosses the Indus Valley and crushed the states he found there. In 325 B.C.E. he left India creating a political vacuum in northwestern India by destroying the existing states and then withdrawing his own forces. The Magadha were set to fill the vacuum, but were taken over by the Maurya.
2. What were five major accomplishments of the emperor Ashoka? Ashoka conquered the last major independent Indian area, Kalinga. Ashoka ruled almost the entire subcontinent under a tightly organized bureaucracy. He established a capital at Pataliputra where a central administration developed policies for the whole empire. He communicated his policies (imperial decrees) by inscribing them in stone. Ashoka built irrigation systems and roads (1600km Highway).
3. How did the Gupta administrative practices differ from the Maurya? Ashoka, Mauryan ruler, insisted on knowing the details of regional affairs. The Gupta, however, left local government and administration, and even the making of basic policy, in the hands of their allies in the various regions of their empire.
4. How did India fit in to the trade along the Silk Road? The silk road crossed India on its way from Central Asia to China. Cotton, aromatics, black pepper, pearls, and gems were the principal Indian exports, in exchange for which Indian merchants imported horses and bullion from western lands and silk from China.
5. In what ways did the development of trade and manufacturing impact the caste system? The growth of trade and proliferation of industries encouraged further development of the caste kit system. As trade and industrial activity expanded, new groups of artisans, craftsmen, and merchants appeared, many of whom did not fit easily in the established structure. Individuals working in the same craft or trade usually joined together to form a guild, a corporate body that supervised prices and wages in a given industry and provided for the welfare of members and their families. The guilds functioned as subcastes, known as jati, based on occupation.
6. What are the fundamental beliefs of Jainism? What has been its long-term impact? Why did it never become as popular as other major world religions? Jainism taught an ascetic doctrine of detachment from the world. Jains believed that everything in this universe possessed a soul. As long as they remained trapped in terrestrial bodies, these souls experienced both physical and psychological suffering. The only way for souls to free themselves was from purification from selfish behavior. Individuals underwent purification by observing the principle of ahimsa, or non-violence to other living things or their souls. The doctrine of ahimsa is fundamental element in the both Hinduism and Buddhism. Gandhi and MLK Jr. also used this doctrine. It is not as popular as other religions because it is too difficult-or even impossible-for most people to observe.
7. What was the popular appeal of Buddhism? How does it compare and contrast to Hinduism? Buddhists did not recognize social distinctions bases on caste or jati so their message appealed strongly to members of lower castes. Because it did not demand the rigorous asceticism of Jainism, Buddhism became far more popular. Early Buddhist monks avoided the use of Sanskrit, language used by Brahmins, in favor of vernacular tongues that reached a much larger popular audience. Early Buddhists also recognized holy sites that served as focal points for devotion. The stupas were also popular with the faithful. Another reason for the popularity was the organization of the Buddhist movement. Buddhism and Jainism sought to escape the cycle of incarnation without depending on the Brahmins, and they both did not recognize social distinctions based on caste or jati. Buddhism, however, did not require the rigorous asceticism of Jainism. Buddhists believed that only through renunciation and detachment from the world could individuals escape the cycle of incarnation, whereas Hindus believed the promise of salvation would be granted to those who participated actively in the world and met their caste responsibilities.
8. How did early Buddhism evolve into Mahayana Buddhism? How did that help spread the religion? Three new developments evolved Buddhism into Mahayana (“the greater vehicle”) Buddhism: Buddha was considered a god, the notion of bodhisattva, and monasteries began to accept gifts as acts of generosity. It spread quickly because it carried more people to salvation and was not quite as strict. Educational institutions also effectively promoted the faith.
9. How did Hinduism evolve in India during this period? It generated new ideas and attracted widespread popular interest. Hinduism drew on inspiration from the Vedas and Upanishads and increasingly departed from the older traditions of the Brahmins. They had four principles: dharma, artha, kama, and moksha.
10. Why did Buddhism eventually lose popularity in India? Hinduism displaced Buddhism as the most popular religion in India. Buddhism grew remote from the popular masses within India, and the monks did not seek to communicate their message to the larger society in the zealous way of their predecessors, but increasingly confined themselves to the comforts of monasteries richly endowed by wealthy patrons. At the same time Buddhism popularity was decreasing, Hinduism popularity was increasing.
Historical Terms and Concepts to Know
Hindu Kush Mountains / Punjabpolitical vacuum / Chandragupta Maurya
Indus River / Ganges River
Ashoka Maurya / Patiliputra
Bactria / Kushan empire
tributary alliances / White Huns
monsoons / Indonesia
southeast Asia / caste system
varna / jati
Brahmin / Jainism
Siddhartha Gautama / Buddha
Four Noble Truths / Noble Eightfold Path
dharma / stupas
patronage / Ceylon
boddhisatva / “Arabic” numerals
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[1] It is not really necessary that students know the Indian words for the various castes, other than “Brahmin.”