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12. Why did the Communists and Guomindang (Kuomintang) in China create a United Front in 1924, and why had it collapsed by 1928?
This requires an analysis of the aims and policies of the Communist Party of China, created in 1921, and the Guomindang (Kuomintang) as reformed by Sun Yat-sen in 1924. Both sought the reunification of China on their own terms, but had a common interest in defeating the warlords. Sunís death brought Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek) to prominence. His ambitions and aims were not those of the CCP. Cooperation during the Northern Campaign brought success, which meant that Jiang could safely turn on the Communists in 1927.
For what reasons, and with what results, was there a civil war in China between
1946 and 1949 ?
For China the long term situation with the 1911 Revolution which overthrew the Manchu dynasty, continuing unrest, warlordism, Chiang-Kai-shek, Mao Tse-tung and the rise of the Communist party could all be made relevant. The result was the success of Mao and a one party Communist state.
Compare and contrast the causes and results of the Spanish Civil War and the
Chinese Civil War.
For comparison of causes, both occurred in times of political and economic crises; ideology played a part in both: both had right wing and left wing parties fighting each other. For results both were bitter and caused much bloodshed; both resulted in totalitarianism and to some extent bloodshed. Differences could include religion in the Spanish Civil War, and Communism in the Chinese War. The former resulted in a right wing regime and the latter in a left wing regime.
Analyse the causes and results of the Chinese Civil War (1945-1949). (P.2.1)
The term ‘Analyse’ asks candidates to respond with a closely argued and detailed examination
of a perspective or a development.
A clearly written analysis will indicate the relevant interrelationships between key variables, any relevant assumptions involved and also include a critical view of the significance of the account as presented.
If this key term is augmented by “the extent to which” then the candidate should be clear that judgment is also sought.
Achievements of Nationalist Government.
End of Imperial system
Failure of Sun Yatsen
War Lords
Rise of Chiang Kiashek
Jiang Jieshi (Chiang K’ai-shek) came to prominence as a protégé of Sun Yatsen (Sun Yat-sen)
during the reorganization of the Guomindang – GMD (Kuomintang – KMT) in Guangzhou
(Canton) in 1924, when he became head of the new Whampoa Military Academy in which
Russian and German instructors trained officers, who included many later Communist leaders.
On Sun Yatsen’s death in 1925, Jiang emerged as his successor and led the Northern Expedition (1926–28).
After the capture of Nanjing (Nanking), Jiang split with the Communists, eventually heading the new Nationalist government, establishing close links with financial and business leaders. A new northern expedition in 1928 occupied Beijing (Peking) and the
capital was moved to Nanjing.
The Nanjing government had many achievements, but relied on the business, financial and landlord classes. Some foreign concessions were returned to the Chinese but western interests remained firmly entrenched in Shanghai.
Some rural reforms were passed but never enforced, which left an opening for Mao’s rural revolution.
China was unified in name, but many provincial governors were warlords who had made their
peace with the Nationalists.
Jiang’s determination to eliminate the Communists before resisting Japan became increasingly unpopular and after the Xian (Sian) Incident (1936) he headed a new United Front.
The Japanese attacks of 1937 united all China behind Jiang, whose troops bore the brunt of the fighting.
Despite defeat, Jiang refused to surrender and continued to resist from Chunking, conserving much of his military strength for eventual use against the Communists.
Attempts after the war to bring the two sides together failed.
When the Civil War began, Jiang’s forces had early successes. However, corruption, arrogance, ineptitude and failure to institute reform lost him support and the war. The Nationalists escaped to Taiwan where, with American aid and protection, Jiang established a successful conservative regime.
See the analysis provided by Immanuel Hsu dealing with financial reform, tariff autonomy, the recovery of foreign
concessions, communications, industrial development, education, the New Life Movement,
literature,
much was
achieved in terms of international recognition, revision of the treaty system and the return of
foreign concessions, financial reform, tariff autonomy, industrial development,
communications, education and literature. By 1937, the Communists had been driven from
Jiangxi (Kiangsi) and reduced in strength.
The new United Front could be seen as evidence of
success or failure depending on one’s point of view.
.
Mention the difficulties they faced:
Make sure it is placed in the context of the pressures placed upon the
regime by the communist insurgency and Japanese expansionism, and also by the policies
those foreign powers which resisted treaty revision and diminution of their privileges
in China.
Failures
the GMD and its leadership in a negative light - corruption, military ineptitude,
reluctance to fight the Japanese occupier and preparation for continuing the war against the
The neglect of social and economic reforms and fiscal irresponsibility
The new United Front could be seen as evidence of
success or failure depending on one’s point of view. Territory had been lost to Japan, but a
new national purpose appeared to be forming. However, the regime failed to introduce social
and economic reforms to benefit the masses, in particular land reform, because of its reliance
on support from the propertied and landlord classes. There was no significant move towards
democracy, corruption and cronyism were widespread and the fiscal irresponsibility of the
government was such that government receipts covered only 80 percent of expenditure, and
deficit spending led to inflation. Candidates may also cite the failure to engage the Japanese
as a failure.
Failure of US in their attempt to negotiate between the Communists and Nationalists in
China.
Advantages of the Communist Forces.
They made a lot out of the Long March
The Long March acquired legendary significance in Communist propaganda and this
contributed as much to its importance as the actual March itself. The Communists
presented what had begun as a defeat and retreat as an epic journey by the Communist
forces to fight their way to their base in Yan’an (Yenan) in order to fight the Japanese.
This resonated with those Chinese who recognised the Japanese threat and believed that
Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek) was ignoring it. Thus the Manchurian troops ordered to
launch a final extermination campaign upon the new Communist base refused to do so,
resulting in the Xi’an (Sian) Incident and the creation of the Second United Front. This gave
the Communists a respite and the events up to 1945 saw their position greatly strengthened.
Mao’s rural revolution was worked out in the (Jiangxi) Soviet and perfected during the Yanan
(Yenan) years. After some excesses in interpretation, a less extreme attitude was taken
towards landlords and by the end of the war with Japan the Communists had won widespread
acceptance. The rural revolution brought the Communists to power, but Mao had difficulty
adapting it to changed circumstances.
“The United Front between the Chinese Communist Party and the Guomindang
(Kuomintang), formed after the Xian (Sian) Incident in 1936, was never likely to last.”
The outbreak of fighting between Chinese and Japanese forces in July 1937 developed into a
Japanese invasion of China.
The Guomindang (Kuomintang) forces bore the brunt of the fighting and retreated eventually to Chungking. The main Communist forces remained in the north-west and there were pockets of resistance elsewhere.
Over the next few years, especially after the attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into the war against Japan, the Guomindang and the Communists were as much preparing to renew their own contest for China as fighting the Japanese.
The CCP largely reverted to guerrilla war, especially after the Hundred Regiments campaign in 1940 provoked vicious Japanese reprisals.
Both parties consolidated their areas. Mao developed his political ideas and emerged as the party’s theoretician and undisputed leader.
Guerrilla activity against the Japanese and the puppet regime extended the area under CCP control.
From 1942 the CCP introduced rural reforms which attracted peasant support. Both parties benefited at the end of the war from the actions of their respective ideological allies.
When the war ended in August 1945 each raced to acquire as much territory as possible. The various post-war attempts to reconcile the two parties failed and civil war began.
The CCP moved into areas taken by the Soviet Union in Manchuria while the GMD (KMT) were supported by the United States in their return to the occupied territories in eastern China.
Why Commies won:
the relatively favourable impression created upon visitors to Yan’an (Yenan) and by CCP propaganda
the CCP was also conserving its forces during the war with Japan and preparing for the eventual renewal of the internal struggle.
RESULT
Communist victory
Long term result in rels with Taiwan
the flight of the Guomindang
(Kuomintang) to Taiwan in 1949. Each regime continued to regard Taiwan as a province of
China and to represent itself as the legitimate government of China. The Communists did not
have the naval forces required to invade Taiwan and the opportunity was lost with the
outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 and the American decision to protect Taiwan with its
fleet. The United States refused to recognize the Peking government and its allies followed
suit. Taiwan retained the Chinese seat in the United Nations and on the Security Council until
improved relations with mainland China caused the United States to withdraw its opposition
to entry in 1971.
The United States continued to protect Taiwan and attempts by the Chinese and Taiwanese
governments to find a compromise solution have failed, but China’s economic growth since
the 1980s has been largely fuelled by Taiwanese investment and expertise channelled largely
through Hong Kong. Taiwan has begun to represent itself as an independent state, a situation
which China opposes.