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1. MOTIVATION OF STUDY
According to Lowyck (1994), the views or approaches toward learning and teaching have, during the last 50 years, changed notably. Behaviorism as the old former main view of learning has been replaced by a view that emphasizes a learner's cognitive processes and comprehends learning as a constructive activity (constructivistic view of learning or constructivism). Simultaneously, rather than teaching students in a controlling manner, education has focused on guiding learning. Goals have developed from transferring and recalling knowledge towards the teaching of processes. Knowledge is not seen as the main goal of teaching. The view of knowledge has changed. Knowledge, rather than being based on the domination of one discipline in regard to an event or an idea, should be multistructural and interdisciplinary.
According to Davis and Naumann (1997, p. 14), knowledge is poorly defined. Thus, it is essential to define knowledge in the context of this thesis. We can define knowledge as the sets of data items and information organized and processed to convey understanding, experience, accumulated learning, and expertise as they apply to a given problem or activity, as do Davis and Naumann (1997, p. 14) in their basic textbook "Personal Productivity with Information Technology" of the information systems science.
Because technology has changed faster than the dominant views of learning (Hawkins, 1993, pp. 30-35), computer-supported learning has faced criticism, since it has been carried out using technology in classrooms based on the old views of learning. Technology has often remained a separate, difficult, and expensive matter. Leidner and Jarvenpaa (1993) emphasize that computers in education must be integrated with instructional objectives. In the same way the success of an information system in an organization depends on how well it is linked to the organization's strategy (Leidner & Jarvenpaa, 1993).
General problems in regard to computer-supported learning have also arisen in computer-supported collaborative learning say Wan & Johnson (1994), who state that current collaborative learning systems focus on maximizing shared information. However, they stress that meaningful learning is not simply information sharing but, more importantly, knowledge construction.
Hypermedia and hypertext enable novel ways of finding supportive new views of learning. Hypertext can be defined as a database in which information (text) has been organized nonsequentially (Conklin, 1987). According to Conklin (1987), hypermedia is the extension of hypertext, in which the elements which are networked together can be text, graphics, digitized speech, audio recordings, pictures, animation, filmclips, and presumably tasktes, odors, and tactile sensations. The creation and use of hypertext can be organized in the form of collaborative hypertext. Then hypertext is “grouptext” which has been created collaboratively by a group of people and can be accessed by a group of people (Rada, 1991, p. 112).
The Ministry of Education in Finland (1995) has also paid attention to the role of student in the modern information society reflecting the general reform of education towards constructivistic teaching and learning methods. According to a strategy it created, the ministry emphasizes the responsibility of a student in his/her learning. The role of a teacher is also different. A teacher is a tutor who does not provide facts and theory. Instead, he or she is the counselor of students, supporting them in different learning activities. The ministry stresses the change in school institutions towards being action and learning centers.
During the 90s the reform work of teaching has also reached university education. For example, Isaacs (1994) and Rosenthal (1995) have reported several problems in regard to traditional lecture-based teaching. These problems include ineffectiveness, promoting passivity and isolation in students. Especially in the context of technology and related sciences, some revisions have been suggested to improve lecturing as a teaching method by activating students; using for example, cooperative learning in small groups and essay-writing assignments about technical topics (Isaacs, 1994). From this perspective, lecturing still has its possibilities, if it corrects these problems, but also other methods of learning must be considered. For example, in our context, in the basic of informatics, it is natural of learning informatics using computers, and thus course work utilizing information technology may be a good alternative to conventional lectures.
We claim that hypermedia, hypertext, and collaborative hypertext enable the constructivist view of learning as well as collaborative learning in the proper manner. One way to solve these systems or applications is learning by knowledge construction, which means that a student or a group of students can construct a hyper document based on their view in regard to knowledge to learn. In this way, a computer is a tool supporting cognitive activity, in other words a cognitive tool. Derry (1990) defines cognitive tools as both mental and computational devices that support, guide, and extend the thinking processes of their users.
One way to use a computer or hypertext as a cognitive tool is to form knowledge structures of one domain. In this thesis this domain is the basics of informatics. We test how useful the use of collaborative hypertext as a cognitive tool is, in this domain. Our intention is to compare learning based on collaborative hypertext to learning based on the traditional classes. In this sense we compare open or constructivistic learning and closed behavioristic teaching. Open learning can be realized in different ways, in our sense, with computers. We have selected hypertext as medium to realize this. Additionally, we clarify who benefits from collaborative hypertext and who does not. The thesis, however, pays no attention to the content of the basics in informatics.
In addition, in this thesis we explore if the World Wide Web (WWW) is useful in the learning of the basic concepts in informatics. The WWW is a global hypermedia system on Internet (Berners-Lee et al., 1994). During the 90s and after gathering data for this thesis it has changed the character of hypertext /-media. The WWW means that the pages of hypertext document are available everywhere in the world through the WWW. This creates the opportunities of teamwork regardless of place and time. According to Vuorimaa (1997), the WWW suits teaching and learning of the basics in informatics, if the use of the WWW is organized in minimal instructionist manner. In Vuorimaa's study the students experienced learning based on the WWW meaningful. According to Makkonen (1998b, 1998c, 1999), the WWW suits learning as a complementary part of conventional lectures. The possibilities of the WWW are notable based on the constructivism. Brandt (1997) emphasizes that constructivism asserts that learners construct knowledge by making sense of experiences in terms of what is already known. In constructivist learning the concept of a mental model is essential. According to him, learning is comprehended as the development of a learner’s mental models (or declarative and structural knowledge). We claim that constructivism can be one basis when applying the WWW for teaching and learning (Makkonen, 1998b; Makkonen, 1998c, Makkonen, 1999). Vast information resources are available to teachers and students via the WWW and this information enables multiple ways for knowledge construction. This thesis provides some ideas for the use of the WWW in learning based on the idea of learning by knowledge constructing and collaborating.
Following the first section of this chapter we concentrate on learning as the main activity in our study. This includes the discussions in regard to the character of learning basic concepts, views of learning as a dominating factor of education and computer supported learning. Additionally, section two deals with the area and character of learning of basic concepts in informatics. The next section deals with the technical applications and tools to realize teaching and learning based on the constructivistic approach. We introduce hypermedia, hypertext and collaborative hypertext as well as discuss their opportunities in learning. Since collaborative hypertext is a form of CSCW (Computer Supported Collaborative Work), we discuss its opportunities in learning. The following section presents our research problems and summarizes our results presented in research papers of this thesis, which are included in chapters 2 to 5. Section seven deals with the value of the results using the concepts of validity and reliability. Finally, in section eight, we draw some major conclusions and analyze the meaning of our study from the general perspective.
2. LEARNING
Learning is the main activity concerning this thesis. Thus, it is essential to define what learning is in our context. In this section we discuss the character of learning of basic concepts. We stress how we comprehend both knowledge and the learning of basic concepts. Secondly in this section, we discuss the views of learning, since it affects our research framework notably. In this thesis we compare traditional learning to learning based on knowledge construction. The third subsection deals with computer support as one essential background of our research. Finally in subsection 2.4, we summarize the discussion expressed in subsections 2.1 to 2.3 from the perspective of our context the basics of informatics.
2.1. Learning of basic concepts
The earlier defined concept knowledge and its nature are associated with knowledge acquiring and solving problems (Enkenberg, 1990, pp. 9-18). In this subsection we define the concepts from the perspective of this thesis.
In this thesis the object of learning are concepts and concept structures. Thus, in this sense learning is learning of facts and interrelationships between facts. According to Hiebert and Lefevre (1986), conceptual knowledge is knowledge about interdependencies, which forms networks in which the parts are linked together. Thus, we can claim learning of concepts is becoming better understood based on these interdependencies between the concepts.
Comprehending knowledge as structures is also notable in an another sense. We can recognize three types of knowledge: declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge and structural knowledge (Jonassen, 1993). Declarative knowledge represents cognizance or awareness of some object, event, or idea. Ryle (1949) describes this type of knowledge as knowing that. Procedural knowledge, on the other hand, describes how learners use or apply their declarative knowledge (Jonassen, 1993). The third type of knowledge, structural knowledge, is the knowledge that mediates the translation of declarative into procedural knowledge and facilitates the application of procedural knowledge (Jonassen, 1993). Thus, knowledge structures or structural knowledge is an important measure when we evaluate how well a student has learned concepts. A number of research studies have shown indirectly that knowledge structures are important in problem solving (Chi & Glaser, 1985).
As mentioned in this subsection the term "Knowledge" is important, since cognitive psychology comprehends learning as the process of knowledge instead of changing behavior. Based on this several approaches can be found to teach or learn knowledge in the literature of education.
2.2. Approaches for teaching and learning
The previous subchapter described what the objects of learning, the basic concepts, are. Concepts can be taught or learnt using different approaches and one can be more effective than other one in one context because based on the situated action theory learning is context dependent (Agre & Chapman, 1987; Suchman, 1987). The approaches or views or paradigms of teaching and learning have affected computer-supported learning notably. Thus, it is essential to comprehend these views in our context.
Different definitions exist for classifying views of learning (see for example Risku, 1992 pp. 3-27 and Rauste-von Wright & von Wright, 1994, pp. 103-133 and Leidner & Jarvenpaa, 1995). In this thesis we comprehend learning as knowledge construction process and computers as cognitive tools. Thus, it sensible to define views of learning from the perspective of these including behavioristic way of learning, i. e. behaviorism, objectivistic way, i. e. objectitivism, cognitive way, i. e. cognitivism, and constructivistic way, i. e. constructivism Jonassen (1992a). Widely known and discussed views in regard to computer supported learning are behaviorism and constructivism (Jonassen, 1992a). Figure 1 illustrates views of learning and the ways of learning in this study based on the discussion by Jonassen (1992a). Programmed instruction is both objectivistic and behavioristic emphasizing learning by manipulating a learner’s behavioral patterns. Cognitive tools (like collaborative hypertext in this thesis) are based upon a constructivist epistemelogy as well as cognitive learning theory emphasizing learning as knowledge construction and the development of a learner’s personal knowledge presentations.
Figure 1. Views of learning (Jonassen, 1992a).
The idea of behaviorism in computer supported learning is to divide area to learn into little pieces (Risku, 1992, pp. 4-6). The task of a student is to train matters piece by piece. Using educational software based on behaviorism, students are required to train by answering the questions. The questions are asked by the application and the application simply informs if it is a right or wrong answer. According to Risku (1992, pp. 7-9), the benefit of behavioristic oriented educational software can be proved statistically based on the numbers of right answers. However, this kind of approach does not teach students to learn "using their own brains" and a student remains to be the passive receiver of information (Risku, 1992, pp. 7-9).
We supposed that programmed instruction is partly based on behaviorism. Additionally, it is based on objectivism. This view treats knowledge as externally mediated information, which is generated by a teacher and transmitted to learners (Jonassen, 1992a). The purpose of education is for the learner to acquire the knowledge of the teacher- to assimilate the knowledge of the teacher or expert. Objectivism equates information and knowledge as far as the learner is concerned. According to an objectivist epistemology, the teacher and not the learner determines knowledge. There is an external reality that each individual can come to know in the same way. Knowledge is externally referenced rather than internally generated. An instructionist approach is close to objectivism. It emphasizes that the focus of education has been restricted to the transmission of information from teachers to students.
We can claim that last mentioned approaches are based on the passive role of a student. Cognitive and constructivistic approaches emphasize the active role of a learner. Thus, they can provide an alternative approach to plan education.
According to Jonassen (1992a), cognitive learning theory assumes that learners interact with that information, interpret it, and build personal knowledge representations after relating that information to their prior knowledge. The information with which learners construct their reality represents the external reality. However, this information itself does not represent knowledge. Information is a stimuli that are perceived and recorded by the mind resulting personal knowledge representations (Jonassen, 1992a).
In a constructivistic learning environment a student is a creator of concepts (Risku, 1992, pp. 18-22). The difference between cognitivism and constructivism is that cognitive view is concentrated more on changes in personal knowledge representations and constructivism is concentrated more on in which ways these changes in knowledge representations occur. Constructivism holds that instruction is less a process in which knowledge is communicated to learners, and more a matter of nurturing the ongoing processes whereby learners come to understand the world in which they live (Cunningham et al., 1993). In this view, knowledge is an active process of construction, not the receipt of information from external sources. The role of textbooks and other instructional media shifts from one that seeks to maximize the communication of fixed content and/or skills to one in which students engage in the knowledge construction process. This includes constructing interpretations, appreciating multiple perspectives, developing and defending their own positions while recognizing other views, and becoming aware of and able to manipulate the knowledge construction process itself. An important aspect of this approach is the insistence that learning takes place embedded in the contexts to which it is most relevant in everyday life and with which the students are personally involved.
Within this the constructivistic theory falls into two schools of thought, social constructivism and cognitive constructivism (Confrey, 1995). According to him, although these theories differ, they fall within the same basic assumption about learning: The child's individual development is at the center of instruction. Piaget proposed a development theory has been widely discussed in both psychology and education fields. He stressed the holistic approach concerning learning. A child constructs understanding through many channels: reading, listening, exploring and experiencing his or her environment (Piaget, 1977). On the other hand, Vygotsky is most often associated with the social constructivist theory. He emphasizes the influences of cultural and social contexts in learning and supports a discovery model of learning (Vygotsky, 1978). This type of model places the teacher in an active role while the students' mental abilities develop naturally through various paths of discovery.
The definitions concerning the views of teaching and learning have varied in different publications. However, two main extremes can be found and these extremes are open learning and closed teaching (Nulden, 1998). Nulden comprehends that constructivism and cognitivism represent typical open learning as well as behaviorism and objectivism represent closed teaching.
In spite of constructivism or open learning being the main stream of the 90s in discussion about learning and teaching, some criticism to constructivism has been presented. According to Silverman (1995), by giving the right amount and manner of instructionism (i. e. minimal instructionism), students seem to favor its integration into constructivist environments. This corresponds with the discussion in Vuorimaa's study (Vuorimaa, 1997). According to his study and the study by Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1980) and study by Makkonen (1998b, 1998c), the student as a novice in other words as a beginner has no experience in situations where he or she is supposed to act. The rule-based behavior of a novice is very restricted and inelastic. Thus, several instructions must be provided for a novice's action. For this reason, an introduction course of informatics can not be fully based on the constructivist view of learning and at the beginning of a course the learning must be controlled and well instructed. Additionally, Nulden (1998) has made same kind of conclusions emphasizing the need of a good introduction leaded by a teacher, although we reject conventional lecturing.
In this study we compare two extremes teacher centered traditional closed teaching to open learning based on constructivism and cognitivism and the student's more active role. We do not discuss how these extremes can supplement each other in this thesis, but we accept that the students need some basic exercises concerning basic tools at the beginning of a course as well as the instructions for a course work must be clear.