WRITING YOUR SENIOR THESIS
GEOGRAPHY 490
Dr. Julie Laity
Writing your thesis is made easier when you follow a standard format. The following is an organizational framework that is commonly used for geographic and scientific papers. However, you do have some flexibility in organizing the body of the paper. I suggest that you read some published papers in journals such as the Professional Geographer, the Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Geomorphology, or Urban Geography to see how others approach the organization of their papers.
The following are mandatory: A title and an abstract.
Title
Concise and informative. Titles are often used in information-retrieval systems. Avoid abbreviations and formulae where possible.
Abstract
A concise and factual abstract is required. In general, the abstract should state briefly
- the purpose of the research,
- the principal methods and data used,
- the principal results and major conclusions.
An abstract is often presented separate from the article, so it must be able to stand alone. References should therefore be avoided. Non-standard or uncommon abbreviations should be avoided, but if essential they must be defined at their first mention in the abstract itself.
An abstract and the introduction are NOT the same thing. An abstract is NOT an introduction.
Note how the following abstract is information packed. Use active voice (avoid passive voice). Pass on the information you would like the reader to retain. Focus on your RESULTS as illustrated by the following two published abstracts. Note that the second abstract briefly mentions methods and includes conclusions based on statistical analysis.
Critique the following abstracts which were published in geography journals. Which do you think is (are) the most valuable? Why?
Abstract 1
Dryland ecosystems have long been considered to have a highly heterogeneous distribution of nutrients and soil biota, with greater concentrations of both in soils under plants relative to interspace soils. We examined the distribution of soil resources in two plant communities (dominated by either the shrubColeogyne ramosissimaor the grassStipa hymenoides) at two locations. Interspace soils were covered either by early successional biological soil crusts (BSCs) or by later successional BSCs (dominated by nitrogen (N)-fixing cyanobacteria and lichens). For each of the 8 plant typecrust type locations, we sampled the stem, dripline, and 3 interspace distances around each of 3 plants. Soil analyses revealed that only available potassium (Kav) and ammonium concentrations were consistently greater under plants (7 of 8 sites and 6 of 8 sites, respectively). Nitrate and iron (Fe) were greater under plants at 4 sites, while all other nutrients were greater under plants at less than 50% of the sites. In contrast, calcium, copper, clay, phosphorus (P), and zinc were often greater in the interspace than underthe plants. Soil microbial biomass was always greater under the plant compared to the interspace . The community composition of N-fixing bacteria was highly variable, with no distinguishable patterns among microsites. Bacterivorous nematodes and rotifers were consistently more abundant under plants (8 and 7 sites, respectively), and fungivorous and omnivorous nematodes were greater under plants at 5 of the 8 sites. Abundance of other soil biota was greater under plants at less than 50% of the sites, but highly correlated with the availability of N, P, K, and Fe. Unlike other ecosystems, the soil biota was only infrequently correlated with organic matter. Lack of plant-driven heterogeneity in soils of this ecosystem is likely due to (1) interspace soils covered with BSCs, (2) little incorporation of above-ground plant litter into soils, and/or (3) root deployment patterns.
Abstract 2
Recently disturbed and ‘control’ (i.e. less recently disturbed) soils in the Mojave Desert were compared for their vulnerability to wind erosion, using a wind tunnel, before and after being experimentally trampled. Before trampling, control sites had greater cyanobacterial biomass, soil surface stability, threshold friction velocities (TFV; i.e. the wind speed required to move particles), and sediment yield than sites that had been more recently disturbed by military manoeuvres. After trampling, all sites showed a large drop in TFVs and a concomitant increase in sediment yield. Simple correlation analyses showed that the decline in TFVs and rise in sediment yield were significantly related to cyanobacterial biomass (as indicated by soil chlorophyll a). However, chlorophyll a amounts were very low compared to chlorophyll a amounts found at cooler desert sites, where chlorophyll a is often the most important factor in determining TFV and sediment yield. Multiple regression analyses showed that other factors at Fort Irwin were more important than cyanobacterial biomass in determining the overall site susceptibility to wind erosion. These factors included soil texture (especially the fine, medium and coarse sand fractions), rock cover, and the inherent stability of the soil (as indicated by subsurface soil stability tests). Thus, our results indicate that there is
a threshold of biomass below which cyanobacterial crusts are not the dominant factor in
vulnerability to wind erosion. Most undisturbed soil surfaces in the Mojave Desert region
produce very little sediment, but even moderate disturbance increases soil loss fromthese sites. Because current weathering rates and dust inputs are very low, soil formation rates are
Abstract 3
Why is the level of teleworking still low when access to the relevant technology has increased so much in the past decade in the Scandinavian countries and in most other Western countries? This question is the point of departure for this paper. The paper presents results from two Norwegian studies of teleworking, one quantitative the other qualitative, showing the options and frequency of teleworking of different groups in urban areas, their motives, and the effects on transportation. Results from the quantitative study indicate that gender, income, occupation, and education all have a bearing on the decision to telework. The frequency of teleworking is related to gender, occupation, distance to work and income, and the reasons or motives for choosing to telework stated in the qualitative study fall within three categories: the character of working life, temporal aspects/life cycle, and practicalities. These motives each have different effects on transportation in terms of substitution, generation, and modification of travel patterns.
Abstract 4
In this paper, we empirically investigate how store-based retailers in different urban settings responded to the emergence of the Internet as a channel for commerce, using the example of Dutch city centers. In particular, we examine the extent to which the adoption of an information-only and online sales strategy is influenced by the size of the city (in terms of population) and the attractiveness of its central shopping location (the city center). We also explore the extent to which click-and-mortar (CAM) retailers in city centers actively promote their website in their physical outlets. The results indicate that the majority of Dutch city-center retailers have already established a Web presence. However, the likelihood of adoption largely varies among city centers. In general, city-center retailers in large cities are more likely to follow a CAM strategy than their counterparts in smaller cities. With regard to city-center attractiveness, shops in highly attractive localities are most inclined to adopt a CAM strategy. City-center retailers already actively promote their website in their retail outlets. This applies especially to stores in small cities with a moderately attractive core, and which belong to large corporate chains with an online sales strategy. Thus, the Internet has become increasingly embedded within the traditional retail environment of the Dutch city center. However, this diffusion process seems to vary from city to city, depending on the size of the city and the quality of its core.
BODY OF PAPER
1. Introduction
State the objectives of the work and provide an adequate background, avoiding a detailed literature survey or a summary of the results.
2. Regional setting
For papers that focus on an area, provide a brief synopsis of the physical and geological characteristics of the area (OR whatever is important to your study: meteorology? Population density? Income levels? Ethnic distribution?), sufficient to give the new work context, but again avoid a detailed literature survey.
REMEMBER that you can subdivide this section if necessary
3. Materials and methods
Provide sufficient detail on methods to allow the work to be reproduced. Methods already published should be indicated by a reference: only relevant modifications should be described. Samples should normally be positioned on a map or in a table.
Example: Note how there is sufficient detail to reproduce much of the work. Statistical methods are described. The reader is referred to the methods other authors for a fuller explanation of some procedures.
On very gently sloping terrain, the orientation of vegetation banding can be difficult to
judge by eye. Therefore, a digital theodolite incorporating laser distance measuring
was used to map surface elevations and grove/intergrove margins within four
75 m (approx. 0?5 ha) study plots, two of which were selected because the
vegetation banding was known from prior surveys to be contour-parallel, and two at
sites where the vegetation banding appeared to be aligned obliquely to the contour. All
mapped plots were of sufficient size to include multiple wavelengths of the grove and
intergrove pattern. The four plots were located within an area of about 4 km2. Within
each plot, up to 150 small marker pegs were set out at intervals of 3–5 m by a person
walking along the grove–intergrove boundaries, which are generally very distinct.
During the subsequent mapping, the location and elevation of each peg was recorded
with the theodolite, and the pegs were progressively collected. This procedure proved
necessary as the groves and intergroves form a confusing maze and without markers,
sections of the study plot could inadvertently be mapped twice or not at all. The
resulting (X,Y,Z) co-ordinates allowed the grove and intergrove boundaries to be
plotted planimetrically, with the soil surface contoured at 5 or 10 cm inter vals. This
was carried out in the field on a por table computer the running the Surface III
software (Kansas Geological Survey, 1995). Mean grove and intergrove widths as well
as mean topographic slopes were determined from these maps by taking measure-
ments along five evenly spaced transect lines oriented orthogonally to the contour, and
spanning the mapped areas.
The contour maps were also used to derive numerical data on the relative
orientations of the grove–intergroves boundaries and the topographic contours. Given
that the study plots lay on essentially planar slopes, with little contour curvature, least-
squares linear regression was applied to the co-ordinates of about ten locations evenly
spaced along each contour line and each grove–intergrove boundar y lying within each
study plot. These fitted regression lines in effect provided best-fit trend lines for the
vegetation boundaries and contours, smoothing minor irregularities. The mean
orientation of the 5–8 vegetation boundaries and 5–8 contours on each plot were then
found by averaging the fitted regression slopes, and the difference between the
orientations tested using a standardt-test.
In addition, more detailed topographic information, together with the locations of
grove boundaries, were obtained by determining elevations at 1 m inter vals along
linear transects oriented at right angles to the vegetation boundaries, and spanning
multiple grove–intergrove cycles, and by direct measurement with tapes. Several tape
transects were run for up to 0?5 km, in order to obtain data on 15–20 wavelengths of
the banded pattern. These are used to look for relationships between intergrove and
grove dimensions.
The projected cover of foliage and fallen litter were estimated by point-counting at
1 m inter vals along multiple 50 m line-intercept transects oriented haphazardly within
the groves.
Soil samples were collected along the transects used to map detailed microtopography. At 2 m intervals, a steel core cutter was used to remove samples of 100 cm3.
These were sealed in bags and later dried at 1051C for 24 h and gravimetric water
content determined from the weight loss. Bulk density was then calculated from the
dry soil weight, following the procedure of Blake & Hartge (1986). Additionally, at 1
m intervals along the same transects, a Proctor penetrometer with a calibrated spring
was used to determine the unconfined compressive strength (penetration resistance)
of the soils.
As noted earlier, some models of vegetation banding suggest that continual upslope
migration of the pattern should be exhibited. In 1995, we had erected permanent
monuments to mark the upslope borders of several groves at the field site. Monuments
were also erected to mark the end points of two long transects crossing many grove–
intergrove cycles. These have been revisited and photographed episodically since, in
order to document any shift in the position of the vegetation boundaries.
4. Results
This should highlight the key results (and not repeat material already in figures or tables) and summarize the direct implications of these results.
5. Discussion
This should explore the inter-relationships of different data sets and the broader significance of the results. It may include limited speculation, that will not appear in the conclusions.
6. Conclusions
The short Conclusions section should summarize the conclusions of the study that have been firmly established. It should not duplicate either the Abstract or the Discussion.
7. Acknowledgements
Place acknowledgements, including information on grants received, before the references, in a separate section
8. Appendices
If there is more than one appendix, they should be identified as A, B, etc. Formulae and equations in appendices should be given separate numbering: (Eq. A.1), (Eq. A.2), etc.; in a subsequent appendix, (Eq. B.1) and so forth.
9. References
See separate section, below.
OTHER INFORMATION
Nomenclature and units
Follow internationally accepted rules and conventions: use the international system of units (SI). If other quantities are mentioned, give their equivalent in SI.
You may include English units as follows “ 50 mm (2 in) of rain fell.” Do not mix units.
MORE INFORMATION
Mathematical formulae
Present simple formulae in the line of normal text where possible. In principle, variables are to be presented in italics. Use the solidus (/) instead of a horizontal line, e.g.,
X/Y rather than
X
Y
Powers of e are often more conveniently denoted by exp.
Number consecutively any equations that have to be displayed separate from the text (if referred to explicitly in the text).
Footnotes
Footnotes should be used sparingly. Number them consecutively throughout the article, using superscript Arabic numbers. Many wordprocessors build footnotes into the text, and this feature may be used. Should this not be the case, indicate the position of footnotes in the text and present the footnotes themselves on a separate sheet at the end of the article. Do not include footnotes in the Reference list.
Tables
Number tables consecutively in accordance with their appearance in the text. Place footnotes to tables below the table body and indicate them with superscript lowercase letters. Be sparing in the use of tables and ensure that the data presented in tables do not duplicate results described elsewhere in the article.
References
1. All references cited in the text are to be listed at the end of the paper. The manuscript should be carefully checked to ensure that the spellings of authors' names and publication years are exactly the same in the text as in the reference list. Do not type author's and editor's names in capitals.
2. In the text refer to the author's LAST name (without initials) and year of publication, followed - if necessary - by a short reference to appropriate pages. Examples: "Because Peterson (1994) has shown that...". "This is in agreement with results obtained later (Kramer, 1996, pp. 12-16)"
3. If reference is made in the text to publications written by more than two authors the name of the first author should be used, followed by "et al.". This indication, however, should never be used in the list of references. In this list names of authors and all co-authors must be given in full.
4. References in the text should be arranged chronologically. The list of references should be arranged alphabetically by authors' names, and chronologically per author. If an author's name in the list is also mentioned with co-authors, the following order should be used: Publications of the single author, arranged according to publication year - publications of the same author with one co-author, arranged according to publication year - publications of the author with more than one co-author, arranged according to publication year.
The following system should be used for arranging references:
- Journal papers: Names and initials of all authors, year. Title of paper. Journal name (given in full or abbreviated using the International List of Periodical Title Word Abbreviations), volume number (issue number): first and last page numbers of the paper.
- I SUGGEST you use the full name of the periodical, as I doubt you are going to check the International List of PTWA.
Example:
Elbaz-Poulichet, F., Guan, D.M., Martin, J.M., 1991. Trace metal behaviour in a highly stratified Mediterranean estuary: the Krka (Yugoslavia). Mar. Chem. 32, 211-224.
b. Monographs: Names and initials of all authors, year. Title of the monograph. Publisher, location of publisher.
Example:
Zhdanov, M.S., Keller, G.V., 1994. The Geoelectrical Methods in Geophysical Exploration. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
c. Edited volume papers: Names and initials of all authors, year. Title of paper. Names and initials of the volume editors, title of the edited volume. Publisher, location of publisher, first and last page numbers of the paper.
Example:
Thomas, E., 1992. Middle Eocene-late Oligocene bathyal benthic foraminifera (Weddell Sea): faunal changes and implications for ocean circulation. In: Prothero, D.R., Berggren, W.A. (Eds.), Eocene-Oligocene Climatic and Biotic Evolution. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ, pp. 245-271.