IRAN 1940 TO 1979
“Conflict between western influences and religious conservatives were the main causes
of the Iranian revolution 1979.” Assess the validity of this statement.
Answers will need to consider a range of factors including the strength of the regime, levels of
opposition, largely suppressed until the mid 1970s. Economic disparity led to discontent with
the regime and the emergence of the “Red Mullahs”, as well as other left wing groups which
were crushed by Savak leaving the conservative opposition led by Khomeini to dominate –
although there were also liberal groups active at the time. Comment on the conservative
nature of significant sections of Iranian society will be apt when discussing the issue of
western influences.
[8 to 10 marks] narrative accounts with undeveloped references to religion and western
influences.
[11 to 13 marks] secure knowledge of events plus an attempt to assess relative importance of
causal factors.
[14 to 16 marks] full assessment of causal factors, will be able to contextualise events
commenting that relaxation from 1977 allowed the emergence of opposition groups.
[17+ marks] as above but may also comment on the underlying weakness of the Pahlavi
regime which meant that events moved rapidly once political restrictions were relaxed.
To what extent was the 1979 Revolution in Iran a reaction against social and economic
modernization policies?
Candidates will need to identify the aims of the White Revolution i.e. the establishment of an
urban, industrial state, with the Pahlavi dynasty retaining power but free from reliance on
landowning nobles. Policies implemented to bring this about will need to be known and
examined critically (land reform, economic expansion, education). Consequences:
agro-business developed in rural areas resulting in massive rural-urban migration (and high
unemployment), traditional social structures damaged by both economic and educational
change – led to growth of opposition within Ulema. Policies failed either to produce a
support base of small farmers or a sufficiently large and prosperous business class (bazaar
merchants hostile). Government unable to effectively utilize increased oil revenues, inflation
increased as supply failed to meet demand for consumer goods. The government increasingly
authoritarian, use of SAVAK to stifle opposition led to underground opposition with links
between radical movements and religious opposition led by Khomeini. Reza Shah had
insufficient support to retain power once these forces combined.
[0 to 7 marks] Simple narrative accounts of the 1979 revolution.
[8 to 10 marks] More detailed narrative of events between 1963 and 1979 with limited
exploration of reasons for White Revolution.
[11 to 13 marks] Narrative with some focused attempt to explain reasons and to analyse
difficulties.
[14 to 16 marks] Balanced accounts which examine reasons and critically examine policies.
[17+ marks] As above but are able to make insightful links between aims and how flaws in
policies contributed to failure. May also comment on Reza Shah’s lack of either consistent
conciliation or consistent repression.
Assess the impact of Khomeni’s policies on Iran.
Domestic impact: Islamic law constitutional foundation of the state, Mullah’s influential,
repression of opposition; changed status of women, economic difficulties, anti-western
attitudes prevalent.
Internationally: Iran isolated and at war with Iraq for much of the time which led to declining
standards of living at home.
Most answers will concentrate on domestic affairs, however there should also be some
consideration of Iran’s international position.
[7 marks] and below for generalized outlines of Khomeini’s ideas or the events of 1979.
[8 to 10 marks] for narrative of policies with no reference to impact.
[11 to 13 marks] for more detailed accounts of policies.
[14 to 16 marks] for detailed accounts with some analytical comment on impact. May not
cover all aspects e.g. Iran’s international isolation.
[17+ marks] for fully developed analysis. May make comparisons with pre-1979 or may
indicate changes since Khomeini’s death.
Why was the monarchy in Iran overthrown in 1979?
Reza Shah’s regime was authoritarian from the mid 1950s. Opposition was repressed until
1977. (State control of Majlis and activities of Savak). Despite the White Revolution there
were still great disparities in Iranian Society, the Mullahs were very influential with urban
poor (disapproved of Westernisation). Iranian society was very conservative. Relaxation
from 1977 onwards allowed discontent to become open. Reza Shah’s policies were uncertain
at this time - still determined to maintain personal power, but he was unable to build
moderate support by conciliation and went into exile January 1979.
[0 to 7 marks] for general accounts of the events of 1978-9.
[8 to 10 marks] for more detailed answers but still focusing closely on 1978-9.
[11 to 13 marks] for broader considerations of the regime. Answers may bring in assessment
of success/failure of White Revolution.
[14 to 16 marks] for detailed consideration of policies, analysis of the nature of the regime –
divisions between traditionalists and modernisers.
[17+ marks] for wide ranging consideration of tensions in Iran political, social and economic.
May comment that Reza Shah’s position weakened from 1977 onwards when repression was
relaxed and the regime had no broad base of support to rely on.
To what extent were the policies of the White Revolution responsible for the overthrow of the government of Iran in 1979? Answers will need to consider the actual policies of the “White Revolution” land reform, modernisation/industrialisation, women’s enfranchisement, the work of the literacy corps and comment on their impact. However, the growth of opposition who and why will merit consideration: ulema, land owners, bazaar merchants, Khomeini’s significance within the context of the “White Revolution”. This is not about the events of 1979, but you should give some credit for accounts of short-term causes of the 1979 revolution. [0 to 7 marks] narrative, limited accounts of opposition groups. [8 to 10 marks] knowledge of the policies and the growth of opposition may be unbalanced. [11 to 13 marks] more specific detailed knowledge better balance. Some links made. [14 to 16 marks] clearly developed, considering fully the links between “White Revolution” and opposition growth. May not consider all aspects. [17+ marks] analysis fully developed. Perceptive answers really considering “extent”.
statement with reference to the years 1950–1979?
1952 Removal of Mossadegh to protect AIOC. Restoration of the Shah with US aid increased
foreign influence
mid-to-late 60s White Revolution – financed by AOIC revenues caused economic and social
dislocation
early 70s oil revenues invested further – benefits limited to small elite or military spending
increased discontent with the regime exacerbated by inflation, leading to support for opposition
and especially Khomeini
Thus in the sense that oil is a key contributor to Iran’s economy it has always had a significant
impact on Iranian politics.
This is not a causes of the 1979 revolution question.
[0 to 7 marks] for unsubstantiated generalisations, inadequate general answers or vague, inaccurate
and irrelevant comments.
[8 to 10 marks] for narrative or descriptive accounts, unbalanced answers or implicit or
undeveloped arguments.
[11 to 13 marks] for narrative framework with explicit focus on the question. Arguments with
limited examples and analysis.
[14 to 16 marks] for analytical, well-focused, relevant, developed and balanced answers: some may
not address all aspects of the question.
[17+ marks] for fully analytical and relevant answers with detail, insight, perceptive comments and
perhaps different interpretations, which address all aspects of the question.
Why, in spite of its apparent strength, was the monarchy so rapidly overthrown in Iran
in 1979?
Answers will need to address the strength of the regime, levels of support but also identify
that opposition was fairly constant but repressed until 1977 when relaxation allowed the
various groups to emerge and capitalise on the inequalities of Iranian society and in the case
of Khomeini its innate conservatism. Mainly descriptive accounts of the events of 1977 to
1979 can gain half marks but the better answers will be able to offer comment along the line
that if the regime was in fact strong it would not have been so rapidly overthrown and will
therefore have to offer some assessment of underlying problems.
[8 to 10 marks] should be awarded to narrative accounts with secure knowledge but
undeveloped analysis, no real reference to strength of regime or rapid overthrow.
[11 to 13 marks] candidates will be able to offer informed analytical comment on the
relatively rapid overthrow of the regime, but analysis will not be fully developed.
[14 to 16+ marks] answers will offer explanation and analysis which clearly links the collapse
of the regime to underlying problems and possibly offer some comment on .apparent
strength..
“The outcome of the Iran-Iraq war (1980 to 1988) failed to resolve the issues which
caused it.” Assess the validity of this statement.
[8 to 10 marks] could be reached with a narrative account of causes and outcome (dispute
over the Shat-Al-Arab, Saddam.s anxieties about the impact of the Khomeini regime on the
Shiite population, border disputes etc.). Accounts of the war itself are not required.
[11 to 13 marks] answers could suggest an element of opportunism on the part of Saddam
(Iran.s military destabilised by revolution, and her economy weak). Both causes and
consequences must be addressed. Outcomes could include no clear victor, huge expenditure
by both sides which may well have contributed to Saddam.s decision to invade Kuwait in
1990. Causes are likely to gain more coverage than the consequences.
[14 to 16+ marks] answers could link causes to internal problems of both states (war of
distraction) but should consider the extent to which tensions were resolved or new problems
caused.
Reference to the role of outside powers and their role in terms of causation would be
legitimate.
Analyse the political and social consequences for Iran of the 1979 Revolution.
Political . the replacement of the one authoritarian regime with another, the removal of
pre-Revolutionary concessions made by Reza Shah, religious domination of politics.
International isolation could also be considered a consequence. Social consequences could
include changed status of women, (chadur, educated women forced into the background,
prevalence of ant-western attitudes, loss of skilled workers who fled the country damaging the
economy).
[7 marks] narratives which tend to be mainly political or social in their forms.
[8 to 10 marks] answers will outline the main strands.
[11 to 13 marks] answers will try to make some clear judgement on the extent of change.
[14 to 16 marks] answers will go beyond Khomeini.s regime and indicate that since his death
there is a process of change once more.